Chapter LXXX: Section II: runs (4)

1777.—"Lady Impey SITS UP with Mrs. Hastings; _vulgo_ toad-eating."—_Ph.
Francis's Diary_, quoted in _Busteed, Echoes of Old Calcutta_, 124; [3rd
ed. 125].

1780.—"When a young lady arrives at Madras, she must, in a few days
afterwards SIT UP to receive company, attended by some beau or master of
the ceremonies, which perhaps continues for a week, or until she has seen
all the fair sex, and gentlemen of the settlement."—_Munro's Narr._, 56.

1795.—"You see how many good reasons there are against your scheme of my
taking horse instantly, and hastening to throw myself at the lady's feet;
as to the other, of proxy, I can only agree to it under certain
conditions.... I am not to be forced to SIT UP, and receive male or
female visitors.... I am not to be obliged to deliver my opinion on
patterns for caps or petticoats for any lady...."—_T. Munro to his
Sister_, in _Life_, i. 169.

1810.—"Among the several justly exploded ceremonies we may reckon that
... of 'SITTING UP.'... This 'SITTING UP,' as it was termed, generally
took place at the house of some lady of rank or fortune, who, for three
successive nights, threw open her mansion for the purpose of receiving
all ... who chose to pay their respects to such ladies as might have
recently arrived in the country."—_Williamson, V.M._ i. 113.

SITTRINGY, s. Hind. from Ar. _shiṭranjī_, _shaṭranjī_, and that from Pers. _shaṭrang_, 'chess,' which is again of Skt. origin, _chaturanga_, 'quadripartite' (see SADRAS). A carpet of coloured cotton, now usually made in stripes, but no doubt originally, as the name implies, in chequers.

1648.—"... Een andere soorte van slechte Tapijten die mẽ noemt
CHITRENGA."—_Van Twist_, 63.

1673.—"They pull off their Slippers, and after the usual SALAMS, seat
themselves in CHOULTRIES, open to some TANK of purling Water; commonly
spread with Carpets or SITURNGEES."—_Fryer_, 93.

[1688.—"2 CITTERENGEES."—In _Yule, Hedges' Diary_, Hak. Soc. ii. cclxv.]

1785.—"To be sold by public auction ... the valuable effects of Warren
Hastings, Esquire ... carpets and SITTRINGEES."—In _Seton-Karr_, i. 111.

SIWALIK, n.p. This is the name now applied distinctively to that outer range of tertiary hills which in various parts of the Himālaya runs parallel to the foot of the mountain region, separated from it by valleys known in Upper India as _dūns_ (see DHOON). But this special and convenient sense (D) has been attributed to the term by modern Anglo-Indian geographers only. Among the older Mahommedan historians the term _Siwālikh_ is applied to a territory to the west of and perhaps embracing the Aravalli Hills, but certainly including specifically Nagore (_Nāgaur_) and Mandāwar the predecessor of modern Jodhpūr, and in the vicinity of that city. This application is denoted by (A).

In one or two passages we find the application of the name (Siwālikh) extending a good deal further south, as if reaching to the vicinity of Mālwā. Such instances we have grouped under (B). But it is possible that the early application (A) habitually extended thus far.

At a later date the name is applied to the Himālaya; either to the range in its whole extent, as in the passages from _Chereffedin_ (Sharīffuddīn 'Ali of Yezd) and from Baber; sometimes with a possible limitation to that part of the mountains which overlooks the Punjab; or, as the quotation from Rennell indicates, with a distinction between the less lofty region nearest the plains, and the Alpine summits beyond, Siwālik applying to the former only.

The true Indian form of the name is, we doubt not, to be gathered from the occurrence, in a list of Indian national names, in the _Vishnu Purāna_, of the SAIVĀLAS. But of the position of these we can only say that the nations, with whom the context immediately associates them, seem to lie towards the western part of Upper India. (See _Wilson's Works, Vishnu Purāna_, ii. 175.) The popular derivation of Siwālik as given in several of the quotations below, is from _sawalākh_, 'One lākh and a quarter'; but this is of no more value than most popular etymologies.

We give numerous quotations to establish the old application of the term, because this has been somewhat confused in Elliot's extracts by the interpolated phrase 'SIWÁLIK _Hills_,' where it is evident from Raverty's version of the _Ṭabaḳāt-i-Nāṣirī_ that there is no such word as _Hills_ in the original.

We have said that the special application of the term to the detached sub-Himālayan range is quite modern. It seems in fact due to that very eminent investigator in many branches of natural science, Dr. Hugh Falconer; at least we can find no trace of it before the use of the term by him in papers presented to the Asiatic Society of Bengal. It is not previously used, so far as we can discover, even by Royle; nor is it known to Jacquemont, who was intimately associated with Royle and Cautley, at Sahāranpūr, very shortly before Falconer's arrival there. Jacquemont (_Journal_, ii. 11) calls the range: "la première chaine de montagnes que j'appellerai _les montagnes de Dehra_." The first occurrence that we can find is in a paper by Falconer on the 'Aptitude of the Himālayan Range for the Culture of the Tea Plant,' in vol. iii. of the _J. As. Soc. Bengal_, which we quote below. A year later, in the account of the _Sivatherium_ fossil, by Falconer and Cautley, in the _As. Researches_, we have a fuller explanation of the use of the term _Siwālik_, and its alleged etymology.

It is probable that there may have been some real legendary connection of the hills in the vicinity with the name of _Śiva_. For in some of the old maps, such as that in Bernier's _Travels_, we find _Siba_ given as the name of a province about Hurdwār; and the same name occurs in the same connection in the Mem. of the Emperor Jahāngīr (_Elliot_, vi. 382). [On the connection of Siva worship with the lower Himālaya, see _Atkinson, Himalayan Gazetteer_, ii. 743.]

A.—

1118.—"Again he rebelled, and founded the fortress of Nāghawr, in the
territory of SIWĀLIKH, in the neighbourhood of
Bīrah(?)."—_Ṭabaḳāt-i-Nāṣirī_, E.T. by _Raverty_, 110.

1192.—"The seat of government, Ajmīr, with the whole of the SIWĀLIKH
[territory], such as (?) Hānsi, Sursutī, and other tracts, were
subjugated."—_Ibid._ 468-469.

1227.—"A year subsequent to this, in 624 H., he (Sultan Iyaltimish)
marched against the fort of Manḍawar within the limits of the SIWĀLIKH
[territory], and its capture, likewise the Almighty God facilitated for
him."—_Ibid._ 611.

c. 1247.—"... When the Sultan of Islam, Nāṣir-ud Dunyā-wa-ud-Dīn,
ascended the throne of sovereignty ... after Malik Balban had come [to
Court?] he, on several occasions made a request for Uchchah together with
Multan. This was acquiesced in, under the understanding that the SIWĀLIKH
[territory] and Nāg-awr should be relinquished by him to other
Maliks...."—_Ibid._ 781.

1253.—"When the new year came round, on Tuesday, the 1st of the month of
Muḥarram, 651 H., command was given to Ulugh Khān-i-A'z̤am ... to proceed
to his fiefs, the territory of SIWĀLIKH and Hānsī."—_Ibid._ 693.

1257.—"Malik Balban ... withdrew (from Dehli), and by way of the SIWĀLIKH
[country], and with a slight retinue, less than 200 or 300 in number,
returned to Uchchah again."—_Ibid._ 786.

1255.—"When the royal tent was pitched at Talh-pat, the [contingent]
forces of the SIWĀLIKH [districts], which were the fiefs of Ulugh
Khān-i-A'z̤am, had been delayed ... (he) set out for Hānsī ... (and
there) issued his mandate, so that, in the space of 14 days, the troops
of the SIWĀLIKH, Hānsī, Sursutī, Jīnd [Jhīnd], and Barwālah ...
assembled...."—_Ibid._ 837.

1260.—"Ulugh Khān-i-A'z̤am resolved upon making a raid upon the Koh-pāyah
[hill tracts of Mewāt] round about the capital, because in this ... there
was a community of obdurate rebels, who, unceasingly, committed highway
robbery, and plundered the property of Musalmāns ... and destruction of
the villages in the districts of Harīānah, the SIWĀLIKH, and Bhīānah,
necessarily followed their outbreaks."—_Ibid._ 850.

1300-10.—"The Mughals having wasted the SIWÁLIK, had moved some distance
off. When they and their horses returned weary and thirsty to the river,
the army of Islám, which had been waiting for them some days, caught them
as they expected...."—_Ziā-uddīn Barnī_, in _Elliot_, iii. 199.

B.—

c. 1300.—"Of the cities on the shore the first is Sandabúr, then Faknúr,
then the country of Manjarúr, then the country of (Fandarainá), then
Jangli (Jinkali), then Kúlam.... After these comes the country of
SAWÁLAK, which comprises 125,000 cities and villages. After that comes
Málwála" (but in some MSS. _Málwá_).—_Rashīduddīn_, in _Elliot_, i. 68.
_Rashīduddīn_ has got apparently much astray here, for he brings in the
Siwālik territory at the far end of Malabar. But the mention of Mālwā as
adjoining is a probable indication of the true position. (Elliot imagines
here some allusion to the Maldives and Laccadives. All in that way that
seems possible is that Rashīduddīn may have heard of the Maldives and
made some jumble between them and Mālwā). And this is in a manner
confirmed by the next quotation from a Portuguese writer who places the
region inland from Guzerat.

1644.—"It confines ... on the east with certain kingdoms of heathen,
which are called SAUALACCA _prabatta_ (Skt. _parvata_), as much as to say
120,000 mountains."—_Bocarro, MS._

C.—

1399.—"Le Détroit de Coupelé est situé au pied d'une montagne par où
passe le Gange, et à quinze milles plus haut que ce Détroit il y a une
pierre en forme de Vache, de laquelle sort la source de ce grand Fleuve;
c'est la cause pour laquelle les Indous adorent cette pierre, et dans
tous les pays circonvoisins jusques à une année de chemin, ils se
tournent pour prier du côté de ce Détroit et de cette Vache de pierre....
Cependant on eut avis que dans la montagne de SOÜALEC, qui est une des
plus considerables de l'Inde, et qui s'étend dans le deux tiers de ce
grand Empire, il s'étoit assemblé un grand nombre d'Indiens qui
cherchoient à nous faire insulte."—_H. de Timur-Bec_, par _Chereffedin
Ali d'Yezd_ (Fr. Tr. by _Petis de la Croix_), Delf, 1723, iii. ch.
xxv.-xxvi.

1528.—"The northern range of hills has been mentioned ... after leaving
Kashmîr, these hills contain innumerable tribes and states, pergannahs
and countries, and extend all the way to Bengal and the shores of the
Great Ocean.... The chief trade of the inhabitants of these hills is in
musk-bags, the tails of the mountain cow, saffron, lead, and copper. The
natives of Hind call these hills SEWÂLIK-_Parbat_. In the language of
Hind SAWALÂK means a lak and a quarter (or 125,000), and _Parbat_ means a
_hill_, that is, the 125,000 hills. On these hills the snow never melts,
and from some parts of Hindustán, such as Lahore, Sehrend, and Sambal, it
is seen white on them all the year round."—_Baber_, p. 313.

c. 1545.—"_Sher Sháh's dying regrets._

"On being remonstrated with for giving way to low spirits, when he had
done so much for the good of the people during his short reign, after
earnest solicitation, he said, 'I have had three or four desires on my
heart, which still remain without accomplishment.... One is, I wished to
have depopulated the country of Roh, and to have transferred its
inhabitants to the tract between the Niláb and Lahore, including the
hills below Nindūna as far as the SIWÁLIK.'"—_Táríkh-Khán Jahán Lodí_, in
_Elliot_, v. 107-8. Nindūna was on Balnāth, a hill over the Jelam
(compare _Elliot_, ii. 450-1).

c. 1547-8.—"After their defeat the Níázís took refuge with the Ghakkars,
in the hill-country bordering on Kashmír. Islám Sháh ... during the space
of two years was engaged in constant conflicts with the Ghakkars, whom he
desired to subdue.... Skirting the hills he went thence to Múrín (?), and
all the Rájás of the SIWÁLIK presented themselves.... Parsurám, the Rájá
of Gwálior, became a staunch servant of the King ... Gwálior is a hill,
which is on the right hand towards the South, amongst the hills, as you
go to Kángra and Nagarkot." (See NUGGURCOTE).—_Táríkh-i-Dáúdí_, in
_Elliot_, iv. 493-4.

c. 1555.—"The Imperial forces encountered the Afghans near the SIWÁLIK
mountains, and gained a victory which elicited gracious marks of approval
from the Emperor. Sikandar took refuge in the mountains and jungles....
Rájá Rám Chand, Rájá of Nagarkot, was the most renowned of all the Rájás
of the hills, and he came and made his submission."—_Ṭabaḳát-i-Akbarí_,
in _Elliot_, v. 248.

c. 1560.—"The Emperor (Akbar) then marched onwards towards the SIWÁLIK
hills, in pursuit of the Khán-Khánán. He reached the neighbourhood of
Talwára, a district in the Siwálik, belonging to Rájá Gobind Chand.... A
party of adventurous soldiers dashed forward into the hills, and
surrounding the place put many of the defenders to the sword."—_Ibid._
267.

c. 1570.—"Husain Khán ... set forth from Lucknow with the design of
breaking down the idols, and demolishing the idol temples. For false
reports of their unbounded treasures had come to his ears. He proceeded
through Oudh, towards the SIWÁLIK hills.... He then ravaged the whole
country, as far as the _Kasbah_ of Wajráíl, in the country of Rájá Ranka,
a powerful _zamíndár_, and from that town to Ajmír which is his
capital."—_Badáúni_, in _Elliot_, iv. 497.

1594-5.—"The force marched to the SIWÁLIK hills, and the _Bakhshí_
resolved to begin by attacking Jammú, one of the strongest forts of that
country."—_Akbar Náma_, in _Elliot_, v. 125.

c. " "Rám Deo ... returned to Kanauj ... after that he marched into
the SIWÁLIK hills, and made all the zamíndárs tributary. The Rájá of
Kamáún ... came out against Rám Deo and gave him battle."—_Firishta's
Introduction_, in _Elliot_, vi. 561.

1793.—"Mr. Daniel, with a party, also visited Sirinagur the same year
[1789]: ... It is situated in an exceedingly deep and very narrow valley;
formed by Mount SEWALICK,[246] the northern boundary of Hindoostan, on
the one side; and the vast range of snowy mountains of HIMMALEH or IMAUS,
on the other; and from the report of the natives, it would appear, that
the nearest part of the base of the latter (on which snow was actually
falling in the month of May), was not more than 14 or 15 G. miles in
direct distance to the N. or N.E. of Sirinagur town.

"In crossing the mountains of SEWALICK, they met with vegetable
productions, proper to the temperate climates."—_Rennell's Mem._, ed.
1793, pp. [368-369].

D.—

1834.—"On the flank of the great range there is a line of low hills, the
SEWALIK, which commence at Roopur, on the Satlej, and run down a long way
to the south, skirting the great chain. In some places they run up to,
and rise upon, the Himálayas; in others, as in this neighbourhood
(Seháranpur), they are separated by an intermediate valley. Between the
Jumna and Ganges they attain their greatest height, which Capt. Herbert
estimates at 2,000 feet above the plains at their foot, or 3,000 above
the sea. Seháranpur is about 1,000 feet above the sea. About 25 miles
north are the SEWÁLIK hills."—_Falconer_, in _J.A.S.B._ iii. 182.

1835.—"We have named the fossil _Sivatherium_ from _Siva_ the Hindu god,
and θηρίον, _bellua_. The SIVÁLIK, or Sub-Himalayan range of hills, is
considered, in the Hindu mythology, as the _Lútiah_ or edge of the roof
of SIVA'S dwelling on the Himálaya, and hence they are called the
_Siva-ala_ or _Sib-ala_, which by an easy transition of sound became the
SEWÁLIK of the English.

"The fossil has been discovered in a tract which may be included in the
SEWÁLIK range, and we have given the name of Sivatherium to it, to
commemorate the remarkable formation, so rich in new animals. Another
derivation of the name of the hills, as explained by the _Mahant_, or
High Priest at Dehra, is as follows:—

"SEWÁLIK, a corruption of _Siva-wála_, a name given to the tract of
mountains between the Jumna and Ganges, from having been the residence of
ISWARA SIVA and his son GANES."—_Falconer and Cautley_, in _As. Res._,
xix. p. 2.

1879.—"These fringing ranges of the later formations are known generally
as the Sub-Himalayas. The most important being the SIWÁLIK hills, a term
especially applied to the hills south of the Deyra Dún, but frequently
employed in a wider sense."—_Medlicott and Blanford, Man. of the Geology
of India, Intro._ p. x.

[1899.—Even so late as this year the old inaccurate etymology of the word
appears: "The term SHEWALIC is stated by one of the native historians to
be a combination of two Hindee words '_sewa_' and '_lae_' (_sic_), the
word '_sewa_' signifying one and a quarter, and the word '_lae_' being
the term which expresses the number of one hundred thousand."—_Thornhill,
Haunts and Hobbies_, 213.]

SKEEN, s. Tib. _skyin_. The Himalayan Ibex; (_Capra Sibirica_, Meyer). [See _Blanford, Mammalia_, 503.]

SLAVE. We cannot now attempt a history of the former tenure of slaves in British India, which would be a considerable work in itself. We only gather a few quotations illustrating that history.

1676.—"Of three Theeves, two were executed and one made a SLAVE. We do
not approve of putting any to death for theft, nor that any of our own
nation should be made a SLAVE, a word that becomes not an Englishman's
mouth."—_The Court to Ft. St. Geo._, March 7. In _Notes and Exts._ No. i.
p. 18.

1682.—"... making also proclamation by beat of drum that if any SLAVE
would run away from us he should be free, and liberty to go where they
pleased."—_Hedges, Diary_, Oct. 14; [Hak. Soc. i. 38].

[ " "There being a great number of SLAVES yearly exported from this
place, to ye great grievance of many persons whose Children are very
commonly stollen away from them, by those who are constant traders in
this way, the Agent, &c., considering the Scandall that might accrue to
ye Government, &c., the great losse that many parents may undergoe by
such actions, have order'd that noe more SLAVES be sent off the shoare
again."—_Pringle, Diary, Ft. St. Geo._, 1st ser. i. 70.]

1752.—"Sale of SLAVES ... Rs. 10 : 1 : 3."—Among Items of Revenue. In
_Long_, 34.

1637.—"We have taken into consideration the most effectual and speedy
method for supplying our settlements upon the WEST COAST with SLAVES, and
we have therefore fixed upon two ships for that purpose ... to proceed
from hence to Madagascar to purchase as many as can be procured, and the
said ships conveniently carry, who are to be delivered by the captains of
those ships to our agents at Fort Marlborough at the rate of £15 a
head."—_Court's Letter_ of Dec. 8. In _Long_, 293.

1764.—"That as an inducement to the Commanders and Chief Mates to exert
themselves in procuring as large a number of SLAVES as the Ships can
conveniently carry, and to encourage the Surgeons to take proper care of
them in the passage, there is to be allowed 20 shillings for every
_slave_ shipped at Madagascar, to be divided, viz., 13s. 4d. a head to
the Commander, and 6s. 8d. to the Chief Mate, also for every one
delivered at Fort Marlborough the Commander is to be allowed the further
sum of 6s. 8d. and the Chief Mate 3s. 4d. The Surgeon is likewise to be
allowed 10s. for each SLAVE landed at Fort Marlborough."—_Court's
Letter_, Feb. 22. In _Long_, 366.

1778.—Mr. Busteed has given some curious extracts from the charge-sheet
of the Calcutta Magistrate in this year, showing SLAVES and SLAVE-GIRLS,
of Europeans, Portuguese, and Armenians, sent to the magistrate to be
punished with the rattan for running away and such offences.—_Echoes of
Old Calcutta_, 117 _seqq._ [Also see extracts from newspapers, &c., in
_Carey, Good Old Days_, ii. 71 _seqq._].

1782.—"On Monday the 29th inst. will be sold by auction ... a bay Buggy
Horse, a Buggy and Harness ... some cut Diamonds, a quantity of China
Sugarcandy ... a quantity of the best Danish Claret ... deliverable at
Serampore; two SLAVE GIRLS about 6 years old; and a great variety of
other articles."—_India Gazette_, July 27.

1785.—"Malver. Hair-dresser from Europe, proposes himself to the ladies
of the settlement to dress hair daily, at two gold mohurs per month, in
the latest fashion, with gauze flowers, &c. He will also instruct the
SLAVES at a moderate price."—In _Seton-Karr_, i. 119. This was surely a
piece of slang. Though we hear occasionally, in the advertisements of the
time, of slave boys and girls, the domestic servants were not usually of
that description.

1794.—"50 Rupees Reward for Discovery.

"RUN OFF about four Weeks ago from a Gentleman in Bombay, A Malay SLAVE
called Cambing or Rambing. He stole a Silk Purse, with 45 Venetians, and
some Silver Buttons...."—_Bombay Courier_, Feb. 22.

SLING, SELING, n.p. This is the name used in the Himalayan regions for a certain mart in the direction of China which supplies various articles of trade. Its occurrence in Trade Returns at one time caused some discussion as to its identity, but there can be no doubt that it is Si-ning (Fu) in Kan-su. The name SLING is also applied, in Ladak and the Punjab, to a stuff of goat's wool made at the place so called.

c. 1730.—"Kokonor is also called _Tzongombo_, which means blue lake....
The Tibetans pretend that this lake belongs to them, and that the limits
of Tibet adjoin those of the town of SHILIN or SHILINGH."—_P. Orazio
della Penna_, E.T. in _Markham's Tibet_, 2d ed. 314.

1774.—"The natives of Kashmir, who like the Jews of Europe, or the
Armenians in the Turkish Empire, scatter themselves over the Eastern
kingdoms of Asia ... have formed extensive establishments at Lhasa and
all the principal towns in the country. Their agents, stationed on the
coast of Coromandel, in Bengal, Benares, Nepal, and Kashmir, furnish them
with the commodities of these different countries, which they dispose of
in Tibet, or forward to their associates at SELING, a town on the borders
of China."—_Bogle's Narrative_, in _Markham's Tibet_, 124.

1793.—"... it is certain that the product of their looms (_i.e._ of Tibet
and Nepaul) is as inconsiderable in quantity as it is insignificant in
quality. The _Joos_ (read TOOS) or flannel procured from the former, were
it really a fabric of Tibet, would perhaps be admitted as an exception to
the latter part of this observation; but the fact is that it is made at
SILING, a place situated on the western borders of China."—_Kirkpatrick's
Acc. of Nepaul_ (1811), p. 134.

1854.—"_List of Chinese Articles brought to India_.... SILING, a soft and
silky woollen of two kinds—1. _Shirún._ 2. _Gorún._"—_Cunningham's
Ladak_, 241-2.

1862.—"SLING is a '_Pushmina_' (fine wool) cloth, manufactured of
goat-wool, taken from Karashaihr and Urumchi, and other districts of
Turkish China, in a Chinese town called SLING."—_Punjab Trade Report_,
App. p. ccxxix.

1871.—"There were two Calmucks at Yârkand, who had belonged to the suite
of the Chinese Ambân.... Their own home they say is ZILM" (qu. _Zilin_?)
"a country and town distant 1½ month's journey from either Aksoo or
Khoten, and at an equal distance in point of time from Lhassa.... ZILM
possesses manufactures of carpets, horse-trappings, pen-holders, &c....
This account is confirmed by the fact that articles such as those
described are imported occasionally into Ladák, under the name of ZILM or
ZIRM goods.

"Now if the town of ZILM is six weeks journey from either Lhassa or
Aksoo, its position may be guessed at."—_Shaw, Visits to High Tartary_,
38.

SLOTH, s. In the usual way of transferring names which belong to other regions, this name is sometimes applied in S. India to the Lemur (_Loris gracilis_, Jerdon).

SNAKE-STONE, s. This is a term applied to a substance, the application of which to the part where a snake-bite has taken effect, is supposed to draw out the poison and render it innocuous. Such applications are made in various parts of the Old and New Worlds. The substances which have this reputation are usually of a porous kind, and when they have been chemically examined have proved to be made of charred bone, or the like. There is an article in the 13th vol. of the _Asiatic Researches_ by Dr. J. Davy, entitled _An Analysis of the Snake-Stone_, in which the results of the examination of three different kinds, all obtained from Sir Alex. Johnstone, Chief Justice of Ceylon, is given. (1) The first kind was of round or oval form, black or brown in the middle, white towards the circumference, polished and somewhat lustrous, and pretty enough to be sometimes worn as a neck ornament; easily cut with a knife, but not scratched by the nail. When breathed on it emitted an earthy smell, and when applied to the tongue, or other moist surface, it adhered firmly. This kind proved to be of bone partially calcined. (2) We give below a quotation regarding the second kind. (3) The third was apparently a BEZOAR, (q.v.), rather than a snake-stone. There is another article in the _As. Res._ xvi. 382 _seqq._ by Captain J. D. Herbert, on _Zehr Mohereh, or_ SNAKE-STONE. Two kinds are described which were sold under the name given (_Zahr muhra_, where _zahr_ is 'poison,' _muhra_, 'a kind of polished shell,' 'a bead,' applied to a species of bezoar). Both of these were mineral, and not of the class we are treating of.

c. 1666.—"C'est dans cette Ville de Diu que se font les PIERRES DE COBRA
si renommées: elles sont composées de racines qu'on brûle, et dont on
amasse les cendres pour les mettre avec une sorte de terre qu'ils ont, et
les brûler encore une fois avec cette terre; et après cela on en fait la
pâte dont ces Pierres sont formées.... Il faut faire sortir avec une
éguille, un peu de sang de la plaie, y appliquer la Pierre, et l'y
laisser jusqu'à ce qu'elle tombe d'elle même."—_Thevenot_, v. 97.

1673.—"Here are also those Elephant Legged St. _Thomeans_, which the
unbiassed Enquirers will tell you chances to them two ways: By the Venom
of a certain Snake, by which the _Jaugies_ (see JOGEE) or Pilgrims
furnish them with a Factitious Stone (which we call a SNAKE-STONE), and
is a Counter-poyson of all deadly Bites; if it stick, it attracts the
Poyson; and put into Milk it recovers itself again, leaving its virulency
therein, discovered by its Greenness."—_Fryer_, 53.

c. 1676.—"There is the SERPENT'S STONE not to be forgot, about the
bigness of a _double_ (doubloon?); and some are almost oval, thick in the
middle and thin about the sides. The Indians report that it is bred in
the head of certain Serpents. But I rather take it to be a story of the
Idoloter's Priests, and that the Stone is rather a composition of certain
Drugs.... If the Person bit be not much wounded, the place must be
incis'd; and the Stone being appli'd thereto, will not fall off till it
has drawn all the poison to it: To cleanse it you must steep it in
Womans-milk, or for want of that, in Cows-milk.... There are two ways to
try whether the SERPENT-STONE be true or false. The first is, by putting
the Stone in your mouth, for there it will give a leap, and fix to the
Palate. The other is by putting it in a glass full of water; for if the
Stone be true, the water will fall a boyling, and rise in little
bubbles...."—_Tavernier_, E.T., Pt. ii. 155; [ed. _Ball_, ii. 152].
Tavernier also speaks of another SNAKE-STONE alleged to be found behind
the hood of the Cobra: "This Stone being rubb'd against another Stone,
yields a slime, which being drank in water," &c. &c.—_Ibid._

1690.—"The thing which he carried ... is a Specific against the Poison of
Snakes ... and therefore obtained the name of SNAKE-STONE. It is a small
artificial Stone.... The Composition of it is Ashes of burnt Roots, mixt
with a kind of Earth, which is found at Diu...."—_Ovington_, 260-261.

1712.—"PEDRA DE COBRA: ita dictus lapis, vocabulo a Lusitanis imposito,
adversus viperarum morsus praestat auxilium, externè applicatus. In
serpente, quod vulgò credunt, non invenitur, sed arte secretâ fabricatur
à Brahmanis. Pro dextro et felici usu, oportet adesse geminos, ut cum
primus veneno saturatus vulnusculo decidit, alter surrogari illico in
locum possit.... Quo ipso feror, ut istis lapidibus nihil efficaciæ
inesse credam, nisi quam actuali frigiditate suâ, vel absorbendo
praestant."—_Kaempfer, Amoen. Exot._ 395-7.

1772.—"Being returned to Roode-Zand, the much celebrated SNAKE-STONE
(_Slange-steen_) was shown to me, which few of the farmers here could
afford to purchase, it being sold at a high price, and held in great
esteem. It is imported from the _Indies_, especially from Malabar, and
cost several, frequently 10 or 12, rix dollars. It is round, and convex
on one side, of a black colour, with a pale ash-grey speck in the middle,
and tubulated with very minute pores.... When it is applied to any part
that has been bitten by a serpent, it sticks fast to the wound, and
extracts the poison; as soon as it is saturated, it falls off of
itself...."—_Thunberg, Travels_, E.T. i. 155 (_A Journey into
Caffraria_).

1796.—"Of the remedies to which cures of venomous bites are often
ascribed in India, some are certainly not less frivolous than those
employed in Europe for the bite of the viper; yet to infer from thence
that the effects of the poison cannot be very dangerous, would not be
more rational than to ascribe the recovery of a person bitten by a COBRA
DE CAPELLO, to the application of a SNAKE-STONE, or to the words muttered
over the patient by a Bramin."—_Patrick Russell, Account of Indian
Serpents_, 77.

1820.—"Another kind of SNAKE-STONE ... was a small oval body, smooth and
shining, externally black, internally grey; it had no earthy smell when
breathed on, and had no absorbent or adhesive power. By the person who
presented it to Sir Alexander Johnstone it was much valued, and for
adequate reason if true, 'it had saved the lives of four men.'"—_Dr.
Davy_, in _As. Res._ xiii. 318.

1860.—"The use of the _Pamboo-Kaloo_, or SNAKE-STONE, as a remedy in
cases of wounds by venomous serpents, has probably been communicated to
the Singhalese by the itinerant snake-charmers who resort to the island
from the Coast of Coromandel; and more than one well-authenticated
instance of its successful application has been told to me by persons who
had been eye-witnesses."... (These follow.) "... As to the SNAKE-STONE
itself, I submitted one, the application of which I have been describing,
to Mr. Faraday, and he has communicated to me, as the result of his
analysis, his belief that it is 'a piece of charred bone which has been
filled with blood, perhaps several times, and then charred again.'... The
probability is, that the animal charcoal, when instantaneously applied,
may be sufficiently porous and absorbent to extract the venom from the
recent wound, together with a portion of the blood, before it has had
time to be carried into the system...."—_Tennent, Ceylon_, i. 197-200.

1861.—"'Have you been bitten?' 'Yes, Sahib,' he replied, calmly; 'the
last snake was a vicious one, and it has bitten me. But there is no
danger,' he added, extracting from the recesses of his mysterious bag a
small piece of white stone. This he wetted, and applied to the wound, to
which it seemed to adhere ... he apparently suffered no ... material
hurt. I was thus effectually convinced that snake-charming is a real art,
and not merely clever conjuring, as I had previously imagined. These
so-called SNAKE STONES are well known throughout India."—_Lt.-Col. T.
Lewin, A Fly on the Wheel_, 91-92.

1872.—"With reference to the SNAKE-STONES, which, when applied to the
bites, are said to absorb and suck out the poison, ... I have only to say
that I believe they are perfectly powerless to produce any such effect
... when we reflect on the quantity of poison, and the force and depth
with and to which it is injected ... and the extreme rapidity with which
it is hurried along in the vascular system to the nerve centres, I think
it is obvious that the application of one of these stones can be of
little use in a real bite of a deadly snake, and that a belief in their
efficacy is a dangerous delusion."—_Fayrer, Thanatophidia of India_, pp.
38, 40.

[1880.—"It is stated that in the pouch-like throat appendages of the
older birds (ADJUTANTS), the fang of a snake is sometimes to be found.
This, if rubbed above the place where a poisonous snake has bitten a man,
is supposed to prevent the venom spreading to the vital parts of the
body. Again, it is believed that a so-called 'SNAKE-STONE' is contained
within the head of the adjutant. This, if applied to a snake-bite,
attaches itself to the punctures, and extracts all the venom...."—_Ball,
Jungle Life_, 82.]

SNEAKER, s. A large cup (or small basin) with a saucer and cover. The native servants call it _sīnīgar_. We had guessed that it was perhaps formed in some way from _ṣīnī_ in the sense of 'china-ware,' or from the same word, used in Ar. and Pers., in the sense of 'a salver' (see CHINA, s.). But we have since seen that the word is not only in Grose's _Lexicon Balatronicum_, with the explanation 'a small bowl,' but is also in _Todd_: 'A small vessel of drink.' A _sneaker of punch_ is a term still used in several places for a small bowl; and in fact it occurs in the _Spectator_ and other works of the 18th century. So the word is of genuine English origin; no doubt of a semi-slang kind.

1714.—"Our little burlesque authors, who are the delight of ordinary
readers, generally abound in these pert phrases, which have in them more
vivacity than wit. I lately saw an instance of this kind of writing,
which gave me so truly an idea of it, that I could not forbear begging a
copy of the letter....

"Past 2 o'clock and
a frosty morning.

"DEAR JACK,

"I have just left the Right Worshipful and his myrmidons about a
SNEAKER of 5 gallons. The whole magistracy was pretty well disguised
before I gave them the slip."

_The Spectator_, No. 616.

1715.—

"Hugh Peters is making
A SNEAKER within
For Luther, Buchanan,
John Knox, and Calvin;
And when they have toss'd off
A brace of full bowls,
You'll swear you ne'er met
With honester souls."
_Bp. Burnett's Descent into Hell._
In _Political Ballads of the 17th and 18th centuries_.
Annotated by _W. W. Wilkins_, 1860, ii. 172.

1743.—"Wild ... then retired to his seat of contemplation, a
night-cellar, where, without a single farthing in his pocket, he called
for a SNEAKER of punch, and placing himself on a bench by himself, he
softly vented the following soliloquy."—_Fielding, Jonathan Wild_, Bk.
ii. ch. iv.

1772.—"He received us with great cordiality, and entreated us all, five
in number, to be seated in a bungalow, where there were only two broken
chairs. This compliment we could not accept of; he then ordered five
SNEAKERS of a mixture which he denominated punch."—Letter in _Forbes, Or.
Mem._ iv. 217.

[SNOW RUPEE, s. A term in use in S. India, which is an excellent example of a corruption of the 'Hobson-Jobson' type. It is an Anglo-Indian corruption of the Tel. _tsanauvu_, 'authority, currency.']

SOFALA, n.p. Ar. _Sufāla_, a district and town of the East African coast, the most remote settlement towards the south made upon that coast by the Arabs. The town is in S. Lat. 20° 10′, more that 2° south of the Zambesi delta. The territory was famous in old days for the gold produced in the interior, and also for iron. It was not visited by V. da Gama either in going or returning.

c. 1150.—"This section embraces the description of the remainder of the
country of SOFĀLA.... The inhabitants are poor, miserable, and without
resources to support them except iron; of this metal there are numerous
mines in the mountains of SOFĀLA. The people of the islands ... come
hither for iron, which they carry to the continent and islands of India
... for although there is iron in the islands and in the mines of that
country, it does not equal the iron of SOFĀLA."—_Edrisi_, i. 65.

c. 1220.—"SOFĀLA is the most remote known city in the country of the Zenj
... wares are carried to them, and left by the merchants who then go
away, and coming again find that the natives have laid down the price
[they are willing to give] for every article beside it.... _Sofālī_ gold
is well-known among the Zenj merchants."—_Yāḳūt, Mu'jam al-Buldān_, s.v.

In his article on the gold country, Yāḳūt describes the kind of dumb
trade in which the natives decline to come face to face with the
merchants at greater length. It is a practice that has been ascribed to a
great variety of uncivilized races; _e.g._ in various parts of Africa; in
the extreme north of Europe and of Asia; in the Clove Islands; to the
Veddas of Ceylon, to the Poliars of Malabar, and (by Pliny, surely under
some mistake) to the Seres or Chinese. See on this subject a note in
_Marco Polo_, Bk. iv. ch. 21; a note by _Mr. De B. Priaulx_, in _J. R.
As. Soc._, xviii. 348 (in which several references are erroneously
printed); _Tennent's Ceylon_, i. 593 _seqq._; _Rawlinson's Herodotus_,
under Bk. iv. ch. 196.

c. 1330.—"SOFĀLA is situated in the country of the Zenj. According to the
author of the _Kánún_, the inhabitants are Muslim. Ibn Ṡayd says that
their chief means of subsistence are the extraction of gold and of iron,
and that their clothes are of leopard-skin."—_Abulfeda_, Fr. Tr. i. 222.

" "A merchant told me that the town of SOFĀLA is a half month's
march distant from Culua (QUILOA), and that from SOFĀLA to Yūfī (Nūfī)
... is a month's march. From Yūfī they bring gold-dust to SOFĀLA."—_Ibn
Batuta_, ii. 192-3.

1499.—"Coming to Mozambique (_i.e._ Vasco and his squadron on their
return) they did not desire to go in because there was no need, so they
kept their course, and being off the coast of ÇOFALA, the pilots warned
the officers that they should be alert and ready to strike sail, and at
night they should keep their course, with little sail set, and a good
look-out, for just thereabouts there was a river belonging to a place
called ÇOFALA, whence there sometimes issued a tremendous squall, which
tore up trees and carried cattle and all into the sea...."—_Correa,
Lendas_, i. 134-135.

1516.—"... at xviii. leagues from them there is a river, which is not
very large, whereon is a town of the Moors called SOFALA, close to which
town the King of Portugal has a fort. These Moors established themselves
there a long time ago on account of the great trade in gold, which they
carry on with the Gentiles of the mainland."—_Barbosa_, 4.

1523.—"Item—that as regards all the ships and goods of the said Realm of
Urmuz, and its ports and vassals, they shall be secure by land and by
sea, and they shall be as free to navigate where they please as vassals
of the King our lord, save only that they shall not navigate inside the
Strait of Mecca, nor yet to ÇOFFALA and the ports of that coast, as that
is forbidden by the King our lord...."—Treaty of _Dom Duarto de Menezes_,
with the _King of Ormuz_, in _Botelho, Tombo_, 80.

1553.—"Vasco da Gama ... was afraid that there was some gulf running far
inland, from which he would not be able to get out. And this apprehension
made him so careful to keep well from the shore that he passed without
even seeing the town of ÇOFALA, so famous in these parts for the quantity
of gold which the Moors procured there from the Blacks of the country by
trade...."—_Barros_, I. iv. 3.

1572.—

"... Fizemos desta costa algum desvio
Deitando para o pégo toda a armada:
Porque, ventando Noto manso e frio,
Não nos apanhasse a agua da enseada,
Que a costa faz alli daquella banda,
Donde a rica SOFALA o ouro manda."
_Camões_, v. 73.

By Burton:

"off from the coast-line for a spell we stood,
till deep blue water 'neath our kelsons lay;
for frigid Notus, in his fainty mood,
was fain to drive us leewards to the Bay
made in that quarter by the crookèd shore,
whence rich SOFÁLA sendeth golden ore."

1665.—

"Mombaza and Quiloa and Melind,
And SOFALA, thought Ophir, to the realm
Of Congo, and Angola farthest south."
_Paradise Lost_, xi. 399 _seqq._

Milton, it may be noticed, misplaces the accent, reading _Sófala_.

1727.—"Between _Delagoa_ and _Mosambique_ is a dangerous Sea-coast, it
was formerly known by the names of SUFFOLA and _Cuama_, but now by the
_Portuguese_, who know that country best, is called _Sena_."—_A.
Hamilton_, i. 8 [ed. 1744].

SOLA, vulg. SOLAR, s. This is properly Hind. _sholā_, corrupted by the Bengālī inability to utter the shibboleth, to _solā_, and often again into _solar_ by English people, led astray by the usual "striving after meaning." _Sholā_ is the name of the plant _Aeschynomene aspera_, L. (N.O. _Leguminosae_), and is particularly applied to the light pith of that plant, from which the light thick Sola TOPEES, or pith hats, are made. The material is also used to pad the roofs of palankins, as a protection against the sun's power, and for various minor purposes, _e.g._ for slips of tinder, for making models, &c. The word, until its wide diffusion within the last 45 years, was peculiar to the Bengal Presidency. In the Deccan the thing is called _bhenḍ_, Mahr. _bhenḍa_, and in Tamil _neṭṭi_, ['breaking with a crackle.'] SOLAR hats are now often advertised in London. [Hats made of elder pith were used in S. Europe in the early 16th century. In Albert Dürer's _Diary in the Netherlands_ (1520-21) we find: "Also Tomasin has given me a plaited hat of elder-pith" (_Mrs. Heaton, Life of Albrecht Dürer_, 269). Miss Eden, in 1839, speaks of Europeans wearing "broad white feather hats to keep off the sun" (_Up the Country_, ii. 56). Illustrations of the various shapes of Sola hats used in Bengal about 1854 will be found in _Grant, Rural Life in Bengal_, 105 _seq._]

1836.—"I stopped at a fisherman's, to look at the curiously-shaped floats
he used for his very large and heavy fishing-nets; each float was formed
of eight pieces of SHOLĀ, tied together by the ends.... When this light
and spongy pith is wetted, it can be cut into thin layers, which pasted
together are formed into hats; Chinese paper appears to be made of the
same material."—_Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, ii. 100.

1872.—"In a moment the flint gave out a spark of fire, which fell into
the SOLÁ; the sulphur match was applied; and an earthen
lamp...."—_Govinda Samanta_, i. 10.

1878.—"My SOLAR topee (pith hat) was whisked away during the
struggle."—_Life in the Mofussil_, i. 164.

1885.—"I have slipped a pair of galoshes over my ordinary walking-boots;
and, with my SOLAR TOPEE (or sun helmet) on, have ridden through a mile
of deserted streets and thronged bazaars, in a grilling sunshine."—_A
Professional Visit in Persia, St. James's Gazette_, March 9.

[SOMBA, SOMBAY, s. A present. Malay _sambah-an_.

[1614.—"SOMBAY or presents."—_Foster, Letters_, ii. 112.

[1615.—"... concluded rather than pay the great SOMBA of eight hundred
reals."—_Ibid._ iv. 43.]

SOMBRERO, s. Port. _sumbreiro_. In England we now understand by this word a broad-brimmed hat; but in older writers it is used for an _umbrella_. SUMMERHEAD is a name in the Bombay Arsenal (as M.-Gen. Keatinge tells me) for a great umbrella. I make no doubt that it is a corruption (by 'striving after meaning') of SOMBREIRO, and it is a capital example of HOBSON-JOBSON.

1503.—"And the next day the Captain-Major before daylight embarked armed
with all his people in the boats, and the King (of Cochin) in his boats
which they call _tones_ (see DONEY) ... and in the _tone_ of the King
went his SOMBREIROS, which are made of straw, of a diameter of 4 palms,
mounted on very long canes, some 3 or 4 fathoms in height. These are used
for state ceremonial, showing that the King is there in person, as it
were his pennon or royal banner, for no other lord in his realm may carry
the like."—_Correa_, i. 378.

1516.—"And besides the page I speak of who carries the sword, they take
another page who carries a SOMBREIRO with a stand to shade his master,
and keep the rain off him; and some of these are of silk stuff finely
wrought, with many fringes of gold, and set with stones and seed
pearl...."—_Barbosa_, Lisbon ed. 298.

1553.—"At this time Dom Jorge discerned a great body of men coming
towards where he was standing, and amid them a SOMBREIRO on a lofty
staff, covering the head of a man on horseback, by which token he knew it
to be some noble person. This SOMBREIRO is a fashion in India coming from
China, and among the Chinese no one may use it but a gentleman, for it is
a token of nobility, which we may describe as a one-handed _pallium_
(having regard to those which we use to see carried by four, at the
reception of some great King or Prince on his entrance into a
city)...."—_Barros_, III. x. 9. Then follows a minute description of the
SOMBREIRO or UMBRELLA.

[1599.—"... a great broad SOMBRERO or shadow in their hands to defend
them in the Summer from the Sunne, and in the Winter from the
Raine."—_Hakl._ II. i. 261 (_Stanf. Dict._).

[1602.—In his character of D. Pedro Mascarenhas, the Viceroy, Couto says
he was anxious to change certain habits of the Portuguese in India: "One
of these was to forbid the tall SOMBREIROS for warding off the rain and
sun, to relieve men of the expence of paying those who carried them; he
himself did not have one, but used a woollen umbrella with small cords
(?), which they called for many years _Mascarenhas_. Afterwards finding
the sun intolerable and the rain immoderate, he permitted the use of tall
umbrellas, on the condition that private slaves should bear them, to save
the wages of the Hindus who carry them, and are called BOYS DE SOMBREIRO
(see BOY)."—_Couto_, Dec. VII. Bk. i. ch. 12.]

c. 1630.—"Betwixt towns men usually travel in Chariots drawn by Oxen, but
in Towns upon PALAMKEENS, and with SOMBREROS _de Sol_ over them."—_Sir T.
Herbert_, ed. 1665, p. 46.

1657.—"A costé du cheval il y a un homme qui esvente _Wistnou_, afin
qu'il ne reçoive point d'incommodité soit par les mouches, ou par la
chaleur; et à chaque costé on porte deux ZOMBREIROS, afin que le Soleil
ne luise pas sur luy...."—_Abr. Roger_, Fr. Tr. ed. 1670, p. 223.

1673.—"None but the Emperor have a SUMBRERO among the _Moguls_."—_Fryer_,
36.

1727.—"The _Portuguese_ ladies ... sent to beg the Favour that he would
pick them out some lusty _Dutch_ men to carry their _Palenqueens_ and
SOMERERAS or Umbrellas."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 338; [ed. 1744, i. 340].

1768-71.—"Close behind it, followed the heir-apparent, on foot, under a
SAMBREEL, or sunshade, of state."—_Stavorinus_, E.T. i. 87.

[1845.—"No open umbrellas or SUMMER-HEADS allowed to pass through the
gates."—_Public Notice on Gates of Bombay Town_, in _Douglas, Glimpses of
Old Bombay_, 86.]

SOMBRERO, CHANNEL OF THE, n.p. The channel between the northern part of the Nicobar group, and the southern part embracing the Great and Little Nicobar, has had this name since the early Portuguese days. The origin of the name is given by A. Hamilton below. The indications in C. Federici and Hamilton are probably not accurate. They do not agree with those given by Horsburgh.

1566.—"Si passa per il CANALE di Nicubar, ouero per quello DEL SOMBRERO,
li quali son per mezzo l'isola di Sumatra...."—_C. Federici_, in
_Ramusio_, iii. 391.

1727.—"The Islands off this Part of the Coast are the _Nicobars_.... The
northernmost Cluster is low, and are called the _Carnicubars_.... The
middle Cluster is fine champain Ground, and all but one, well inhabited.
They are called the SOMERERA Islands, because on the South End of the
largest Island, is an Hill that resembleth the top of an Umbrella or
SOMERERA."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 68 [ed. 1744].

1843.—"SOMBRERO CHANNEL, bounded on the north by the Islands of Katchull
and Noncowry, and by Merve or Passage Island on the South side, is very
safe and about seven leagues wide."—_Horsburgh_, ed. 1843, ii. 59-60.

SONAPARANTA, n.p. This is a quasi-classical name, of Indian origin, used by the Burmese Court in State documents and formal enumerations of the style of the King, to indicate the central part of his dominions; Skt. _Suvarna_ (Pali _Sona_) _prānta_ (or perhaps _aparānta_), 'golden frontier-land,' or something like that. There can be little doubt that it is a survival of the names which gave origin to the _Chrysē_ of the Greeks. And it is notable, that the same series of titles embraces _Tambadīpa_ ('Copper Island' or Region) which is also represented by the _Chalcitis_ of Ptolemy. [Also see J. G. Scott, _Upper Burma Gazetteer_, i. pt. i. 103.]

(Ancient).—"There were two brothers resident in the country called
SUNÁPARANTA, merchants who went to trade with 500 wagons...."—_Legends of
Gotama Buddha_, in _Hardy's Manual of Buddhism_, 259.

1636.—"All comprised within the great districts ... of Tsa-Koo, Tsa-lan,
Laygain, Phoung-len, Kalé, and Thoung-thwot is constituted the Kingdom of
THUNA-PARANTA. All within the great districts of Pagán, Ava, Penya, and
Myen-Zain, is constituted the Kingdom of TAMPADEWA...." (&c.)—From an
_Inscription at the Great Pagoda_ of Khoug-Mhoo-dau, near Ava; from the
_MS. Journal of Major H. Burney_, accompanying a Letter from him, dated
11th September, 1830, in the Foreign Office, Calcutta. Burney adds: "The
Ministers told me that by THUNAPARANTA they mean all the countries to the
northward of Ava, and by TAMPADEWA all to the southward. But this
inscription shows that the Ministers themselves do not exactly understand
what countries are comprised in THUNAPARANTA and TĀMPA-DEWA."

1767.—"The King despotick; of great Merit, of great Power, Lord of the
Countries THONAPRONDAH, TOMPDEVAH, and CAMBOJA, Sovereign of the Kingdom
of BURAGHMAGH (BURMA), the Kingdom of SIAM and Hughen (?), and the
Kingdom of CASSAY."—Letter from the _King of Burma_, in _Dalrymple, Or.
Rep._ i. 106.

1795.—"The Lord of Earth and Air, the Monarch of extensive Countries, the
Sovereign of the Kingdoms of SONAHPARINDÁ, TOMBADEVA ... etc...."—Letter
from _the King_ to _Sir John Shore_, in _Symes_, 487.

1855.—"His great, glorious and most excellent Majesty, who reigns over
the Kingdoms of THUNAPARANTA, TAMPADEEVA, and all the great
umbrella-wearing chiefs of the Eastern countries, the King of the Rising
Sun, Lord of the Celestial Elephants, and Master of many white Elephants,
and great Chief of Righteousness...."—_King's_ Letter to the
_Governor-General_ (Lord Dalhousie), Oct. 2, 1855.

SONTHALS, n.p. Properly _Santāls_, [the name being said to come from a place called _Saont_, now Silda in Mednipur, where the tribe remained for a long time (_Dalton, Descr. Eth._ 210-11)]. The name of a non-Aryan people belonging to the Kolarian class, extensively settled in the hilly country to the west of the Hoogly R. and to the south of Bhāgalpur, from which they extended to Balasore at interval, sometimes in considerable masses, but more generally much scattered. The territory in which they are chiefly settled is now formed into a separate district called Santāl Parganas, and sometimes _Santalia_. Their settlement in this tract is, however, quite modern; they have emigrated thither from the S.W. In Dr. F. Buchanan's statistical account of Bhāgalpur and its Hill people the Santāls are not mentioned. The earliest mention of this tribe that we have found is in Mr. Sutherland's Report on the Hill People, which is printed in the Appendix to Long. No date is given there, but we learn from Mr. Man's book, quoted below, that the date is 1817. [The word is, however, much older than this. Forbes (_Or. Mem._ ii. 374 _seq._) gives an account taken from Lord Teignmouth of witch tests among the SOONTAAR.

[1798.—"... amongst a wild and unlettered tribe, denominated SOONTAAR,
who have reduced the detection and trial of persons suspected of
witchcraft to a system."—_As. Res._ iv. 359.]

1817.—"For several years many of the industrious tribes called SONTHURS
have established themselves in these forests, and have been clearing and
bringing into cultivation large tracts of lands...."—_Sutherland's
Report_, quoted in _Long_, 569.

1867.—"This system, indicated and proposed by Mr. Eden,[247] was carried
out in its integrity under Mr. George Yule, C.B., by whose able
management, with Messrs. Robinson and Wood as his deputies, the SONTHALS
were raised from misery, dull despair, and deadly hatred of the
government, to a pitch of prosperity which, to my knowledge, has never
been equalled in any other part of India under the British rule. The
Regulation Courts, with their horde of leeches in the shape of badly
paid, and corrupt Amlah (OMLAH) and pettifogging MOOKTEARS, were
abolished, and in their place a Number of active English gentlemen,
termed Assistant Commissioners, and nominated by Mr. Yule, were set down
among the SONTHALS, with a Code of Regulations drawn up by that
gentleman, the pith of which may be summed up as follows:—

"'To have no medium between the SONTHAL and the HAKIM, _i.e._ Assistant
Commissioner.

"'To patiently hear any complaint made by the SONTHAL from his own mouth,
without any written petition or charge whatever, and without any AMLAH or
Court at the time.

"'To carry out all criminal work by the aid of the villagers themselves,
who were to bring in the accused, with the witnesses, to the HAKIM, who
should immediately attend to their statements, and punish them, if found
guilty, according to the tenor of the law.'