Chapter II: Preface: To the Original Edition (1)

IN the following pages it has been the wish of the author to give the most accurate and satisfactory account of all the proper names which occur in reading the Classics, and by a judicious collection of anecdotes and historical facts to draw a picture of ancient times, not less instructive than entertaining. Such a work, it is hoped, will not be deemed a useless acquisition in the hands of the public; and while the student is initiated in the knowledge of history and mythology, and familiarized with the ancient situation and extent of kingdoms and cities that no longer exist, the man of letters may, perhaps, find it not a contemptible companion, from which he may receive information, and be made, a second time, acquainted with many important particulars which time, or more laborious occupations, may have erased from his memory. In the prosecution of his plan, the author has been obliged to tread in the steps of many learned men, whose studies have been directed, and not without success, to facilitate the attainment of classical knowledge, and of the ancient languages. Their compositions have been to him a source of information, and he trusts that their labours have now found new elucidation in his own, and that, by a due consideration of every subject, he has been enabled to imitate their excellences, without copying their faults. Many compositions of the same nature have issued from the press, but they are partial and unsatisfactory. The attempts to be concise, have rendered the labours of one barren and uninstructive, while long and unconnected quotations of passages from Greek and Latin writers, disfigure the page of the other, and render the whole insipid and disgusting. It cannot, therefore, be a discouraging employment now, to endeavour to finish what others have left imperfect, and with the conciseness of Stephens, to add the diffuse researches of Lloyd, Hoffman, Collier, &c. After paying due attention to the ancient poets and historians, from whom the most authentic information can be received, the labours of more modern authors have been consulted, and every composition distinguished for the clearness and perspicuity of historical narration, or geographical descriptions, has been carefully examined. Truly sensible of what he owes to modern Latin and English writers and commentators, the author must not forget to make a public acknowledgment of the assistance he has likewise received from the labours of the French. In the Siècles Payens of l’Abbé Sabatier de Castres he has found all the information which judicious criticism, and a perfect knowledge of heathen mythology, could procure. The compositions of l’Abbé Banier have also been useful; and in the Dictionnaire Historique, of a literary society, printed at Caen, a treasure of original anecdotes, and a candid selection and arrangement of historical facts, have been discovered.

It was the original design of the author of this Dictionary to give a minute explanation of all the names of which Pliny and other ancient geographers make mention; but, upon a second consideration of the subject, he was convinced that it would have increased his volume in bulk, and not in value. The learned reader will be sensible of the propriety of this remark, when he recollects that the names of many places mentioned by Pliny and Pausanias occur nowhere else in ancient authors; and that to find the true situation of an insignificant village mentioned by Strabo, no other writer but Strabo is to be consulted.

This Dictionary being undertaken more particularly for the use of schools, it has been thought proper to mark the quantity of the penultimate of every word, and to assist the student who can receive no fixed and positive rules for pronunciation. In this the authority of Smethius has been followed, as also Leede’s edition of Labbe’s Catholici Indices.

As every publication should be calculated to facilitate literature, and to be serviceable to the advancement of the sciences, the author of this Dictionary did not presume to intrude himself upon the public, before he was sensible that his humble labours would be of some service to the lovers of the ancient languages. The undertaking was for the use of schools, therefore he thought none so capable of judging of its merit, and of ascertaining its utility, as those who preside over the education of youth. With this view, he took the liberty to communicate his intentions to several gentlemen in that line, not less distinguished for purity of criticism, than for their classical abilities, and from them he received all the encouragement which the desire of contributing to the advancement of learning can expect. To them, therefore, for their approbation and friendly communications, he publicly returns his thanks, and hopes that, now his labours are completed, his Dictionary may claim from them that patronage and that support to which, in their opinion, the specimen of the work seemed to be entitled. He has paid due attention to their remarks, he has received with gratitude their judicious observations, and cannot pass over in silence their obliging recommendations, and particularly the friendly advice he has received from the Rev. R. Valpy, master of Reading School.

For the account of the Roman laws, and for the festivals celebrated by the ancient inhabitants of Greece and Italy, he is particularly indebted to the useful collections of Archbishop Potter, of Godwyn, and Kennet. In the tables of ancient coins, weights and measures, which he has annexed to the body of the Dictionary, he has followed the learned calculations of Dr. Arbuthnot. The quoted authorities have been carefully examined, and frequently revised: and, it is hoped, the opinions of mythologists will appear without confusion, and be found divested of all obscurity.

Therefore, with all the confidence which an earnest desire of being useful can command, the author offers the following pages to the public, conscious that they may contain inaccuracies and imperfections. A Dictionary, the candid reader is well aware, cannot be made perfect all at once; it must still have its faults and omissions, however cautious and vigilant the author may have been; and in every page there may be found, in the opinion of some, room for improvement and for addition. Before the candid, therefore, and the impartial, he lays his publication, and for whatever observations the friendly critic may make, he will show himself grateful, and take advantage of the remarks of every judicious reader, should the favours and the indulgence of the public demand a second edition.

A
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE,
FROM
THE CREATION OF THE WORLD
TO
THE FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
IN THE WEST, AND IN THE EAST

¹In the following table, I have confined myself to the more
easy and convenient eras of before (B.C.) and after (A.D.)
Christ. For the sake of those, however, that do not wish the
exclusion of the Julian period, it is necessary to observe
that, as the first year of the christian era always falls on
the 4714th of the Julian years, the number required either
before or after Christ will easily be discovered by the
application of the rules of subtraction or addition. The
era from the foundation of Rome (A.U.C.) will be found with
the same facility, by recollecting that the city was built
753 years before Christ; and the Olympiads can likewise be
recurred to by the consideration that the conquest of Corœbus
(B.C. 776) forms the first Olympiad, and that the Olympic
games were celebrated after the revolution of four years.

Before
Christ.¹
The world created in the 710th year of the Julian period 4004

The deluge 2348

The tower of Babel built, and the confusion of languages 2247

Celestial observations are first made at Babylon 2234

The kingdom of Egypt is supposed to have begun under
Misraim the son of Ham, and to have continued 1663
years, to the conquest of Cambyses 2188

The kingdom of Sicyon established 2089

The kingdom of Assyria begins 2059

The birth of Abraham 1996

The kingdom of Argos established under Inachus 1856

Memnon the Egyptian said to invent letters, 15 years
before the reign of Phoroneus 1822

The deluge of Ogyges, by which Attica remained waste above
200 years, till the coming of Cecrops 1764

Joseph sold into Egypt by his brethren 1728

The chronology of the Arundelian marbles begins about this
time, fixing here the arrival of Cecrops in Attica, an
epoch which other writers have placed later by 26 years 1582

Moses born 1571

The kingdom of Athens begun under Cecrops, who came from
Egypt with a colony of Saites. This happened about 780
years before the first Olympiad 1556

Scamander migrates from Crete, and begins the kingdom of
Troy 1546

The deluge of Deucalion in Thessaly 1503

The Panathenæa first celebrated at Athens 1495

Cadmus comes into Greece, and builds the citadel of Thebes 1493

The first Olympic games celebrated in Elis by the Idæi
Dactyli 1453

The five books of Moses written in the land of Moab, where
he dies the following year, aged 110 1452

Minos flourishes in Crete, and iron is found by the Dactyli
by the accidental burning of the woods of Ida, in Crete 1406

The Eleusinian mysteries introduced at Athens by Eumolpus 1356

The Isthmian games first instituted by Sisyphus king of
Corinth 1326

The Argonautic expedition. The first Pythian games
celebrated by Adrastus king of Argos 1263

Gideon flourishes in Israel 1245

The Theban war of the seven heroes against Eteocles 1225

Olympic games celebrated by Hercules 1222

The rape of Helen by Theseus, and, 15 years after, by Paris 1213

Troy taken, after a siege of 10 years. Æneas sails to Italy 1184

Alba Longa built by Ascanius 1152

Migration of the Æolian colonies 1124

The return of the Heraclidæ into Peloponnesus, 80 years
after the taking of Troy. Two years after, they divide
the Peloponnesus among themselves; and here, therefore,
begins the kingdom of Lacedæmon under Eurysthenes and
Procles 1104

Saul made king over Israel 1095

The kingdom of Sicyon ended 1088

The kingdom of Athens ended in the death of Codrus 1070

The migration of the Ionian colonies from Greece, and their
settlement in Asia Minor 1044

Dedication of Solomon’s temple 1004

Samos built 986

Division of the kingdom of Judah and Israel 975

Homer and Hesiod flourished about this time, according to
the marbles 907

Elias the prophet taken up into heaven 896

Lycurgus, 42 years old, establishes his laws at Lacedæmon,
and, together with Iphitus and Cleosthenes, restores the
Olympic games at Elis, about 108 years before the era
which is commonly called the first Olympiad 884

Phidon king of Argos is supposed to have invented scales
and measures, and coined silver at Ægina. Carthage built
by Dido 869

Fall of the Assyrian empire by the death of Sardanapalus, an
era placed 80 years earlier by Justin 820

The kingdom of Macedonia begins, and continues 646 years,
till the battle of Pydna 814

The kingdom of Lydia begins, and continues 249 years 797

The triremes first invented by the Corinthians 786

The monarchical government abolished at Corinth, and the
Prytanes elected 779

Corœbus conquers at Olympia, in the 28th Olympiad from the
institution of Iphitus. This is vulgarly called the first
Olympiad, about 23 years before the foundation of Rome 776

The Ephori introduced into the government of Lacedæmon by
Theopompus 760

Isaiah begins to prophesy 757

The decennial archons begin at Athens, of which Charops is
the first 754

Rome built on the 20th of April, according to Varro, in the
year 3961 of the Julian period 753

The rape of the Sabines 750

The era of Nabonassar king of Babylon begins 747

The first Messenian war begins, and continues 19 years, to
the taking of Ithome 743

Syracuse built by a Corinthian colony 732

The kingdom of Israel finished by the taking of Samaria by
Salmanasar king of Assyria. The first eclipse of the moon
on record March 19th, according to Ptolemy 721

Candaules murdered by Gyges, who succeeds to the Lydian
throne 718

Tarentum built by the Parthenians 707

Corcyra built by the Corinthians 703

The second Messenian war begins, and continues 14 years, to
the taking of Ira, after a siege of 11 years. About this
time flourished the poets Tyrtæus and Archilochus 685

The government of Athens intrusted to annual archons 684

Alba destroyed 665

Cypselus usurps the government of Corinth, and keeps it for
30 years 659

Byzantium built by a colony of Argives or Athenians 658

Cyrene built by Battus 630

The Scythians invade Asia Minor, of which they keep
possession for 28 years 624

Draco established his laws at Athens 623

The canal between the Nile and the Red sea begun by king
Necho 610

Nineveh taken and destroyed by Cyaxares and his allies 606

The Phœnicians sail round Africa, by order of Necho. About
this time flourished Arion, Pittacus, Alcæus, Sappho, &c. 604

The Scythians are expelled from Asia Minor by Cyaxares 596

The Pythian games first established at Delphi. About this
time flourished Chilo, Anacharsis, Thales, Epimenides,
Solon, the prophet Ezekiel, Æsop, Stersichorus 591

Jerusalem taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 9th of June, after a
siege of 18 months 587

The Isthmian games restored and celebrated every first and
third year of the Olympiads 582

Death of Jeremiah the prophet 577

The Nemæan games restored 568

The first comedy acted at Athens by Susarion and Dolon 562

Pisistratus first usurped the sovereignty at Athens 560

Cyrus begins to reign. About this time flourished Anaximenes,
Bias, Anaximander, Phalaris, and Cleobulus 559

Crœsus conquered by Cyrus. About this time flourished
Theognis and Pherecydes 548

Marseilles built by the Phocæans. The age of Pythagoras,
Simonides, Thespis, Xenophanes, and Anacreon 539

Babylon taken by Cyrus 538

The return of the Jews by the edict of Cyrus, and the
rebuilding of the temple 536

The first tragedy acted at Athens on the waggon of Thespis 535

Learning encouraged at Athens, and a public library built 526

Egypt conquered by Cambyses 525

Polycrates of Samos put to death 522

Darius Hystaspes chosen king of Persia. About this time
flourished Confucius the celebrated Chinese philosopher 521

The tyranny of the Pisistratidæ abolished at Athens 510

The consular government begins at Rome after the expulsion
of the Tarquins, and continues independent 461 years, till
the battle of Pharsalia 509

Sardis taken by the Athenians and burnt, which became
afterwards the cause of the invasion of Greece by
the Persians. About this time flourished Heraclitus,
Parmenides, Milo the wrestler, Aristagoras, &c. 504

The first dictator, Lartius, created at Rome 498

The Roman populace retire to mount Sacer 493

The battle of Marathon 490

The battles of Thermopylæ, August 7th, and Salamis, October
20th. About this time flourished Æschylus, Pindar, Charon,
Anaxagoras, Zeuxis, Aristides, &c. 480

The Persians defeated at Platæa and Mycale on the same day,
22nd September 479

The 300 Fabii killed at Cremera, July 17th 477

Themistocles, accused of conspiracy, flies to Xerxes 471

The Persians defeated at Cyprus, and near the Eurymedon 470

The third Messenian war begins, and continues 10 years 465

Egypt revolts from the Persians under Inarus, assisted by
the Athenians 463

The Romans send to Athens for Solon’s laws. About this
time flourished Sophocles, Nehemiah the prophet, Plato
the comic poet, Aristarchus the tragic, Leocrates,
Thrasybulus, Pericles, Zaleucus, &c. 454

The first Sacred war concerning the temple of Delphi 448

The Athenians defeated at Chæronea by the Bœotians 447

Herodotus reads his history to the council of Athens, and
receives public honours in the 39th year of his age.
About this time flourished Empedocles, Hellanicus,
Euripides, Herodicus, Phidias Artemones, Charondas, &c. 445

A colony sent to Thurium by the Athenians 444

Comedies prohibited at Athens, a restraint which remained
in force for three years 440

A war between Corinth and Corcyra 439

Meton begins here his 19 years’ cycle of the moon 432

The Peloponnesian war begins, May the 7th, and continues
about 27 years. About this time flourished Cratinus,
Eupolis, Aristophanes, Meton, Euctemon, Malachi the
last of the prophets, Democritus, Gorgias, Thucydides,
Hippocrates, &c. 431

The history of the Old Testament finishes about this time.
A plague at Athens for five years 430

A peace of 50 years made between the Athenians and
Lacedæmonians, which is kept only during six years and
ten months, though each continued at war with the other’s
allies 421

The scene of the Peloponnesian war changed to Sicily. The
Agrarian law first moved at Rome 416

Egypt revolts from the Persians, and Amyrtæus is appointed
king 414

The Carthaginians enter Sicily, where they destroy Selinus
and Himera, but they are repulsed by Hermocrates 409

The battle of Ægospotamos. The usurpation of Dionysius 405

Athens taken by Lysander, 24th of April. The end of the
Peloponnesian war, and the appointment of 30 tyrants over
the conquered city. About this time flourished Parrhasius,
Protagoras, Lysias, Agathon, Euclid, Cebes, Telestes, &c. 404

Cyrus the younger killed at Cunaxa. The glorious retreat
of the 10,000 Greeks, and the expulsion of the 30 tyrants
from Athens by Thrasybulus 401

Socrates put to death 400

Agesilaus of Lacedæmon’s expedition into Asia against
the Persians. The age of Xenophon, Ctesias, Zeuxis,
Antisthenes, Evagoras, Aristippus of Cyrene, and Archytas 396

The Corinthian war begun by the alliance of the Athenians,
Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, against Lacedæmon 395

The Lacedæmonians, under Pisander, defeated by Conon at
Cnidus; and, a few days after, the allies are defeated
at Coronæa, by Agesilaus 394

The battle of Allia, July 17th, and the taking of Rome by
the Gauls 390

Dionysius besieges Rhegium, and takes it after 11 months.
About this time flourished Plato, Philoxenus, Damon,
Pythias, Iphicrates, &c. 388

The Greek cities of Asia tributary to Persia, by the peace
of Antalcidas, between the Lacedæmonians and Persians 387

The war of Cyprus finished by a treaty, after it had
continued two years 385

The Lacedæmonians defeated in a sea-fight at Naxos,
September 20th, by Chabrias. About this time flourished
Philistus, Isæus, Isocrates, Arete, Philolaus, Diogenes
the cynic, &c. 377

Artaxerxes sends an army under Pharnabazus, with 20,000
Greeks, commanded by Iphicrates 374

The battle of Leuctra, July 8th, where the Lacedæmonians
are defeated by Epaminondas the general of the Thebans 371

The Messenians, after a banishment of 300 years, return to
Peloponnesus 370

One of the consuls at Rome elected from the plebeians 367

The battle of Mantinea gained by Epaminondas, a year after
the death of Pelopidas 363

Agesilaus assists Tachos king of Egypt. Some of the
governors of Lesser Asia revolt from Persia 362

The Athenians are defeated at Methone, the first battle
that Philip of Macedon ever won in Greece 360

Dionysius the younger is expelled from Syracuse by Dion. The
second Sacred war begins, on the temple of Delphi being
attacked by the Phocians 357

Dion put to death, and Syracuse governed seven years by
tyrants. About this time flourished Eudoxus, Lycurgus,
Ibis, Theopompus, Ephorus, Datames, Philomelus, &c. 354

The Phocians, under Onomarchus, are defeated in Thessaly by
Philip 353

Egypt is conquered by Ochus 350

The Sacred war is finished by Philip taking all the cities
of the Phocians 348

Dionysius recovers the tyranny of Syracuse, after 10 years’
banishment 347

Timoleon recovers Syracuse and banishes the tyrant 343

The Carthaginians defeated by Timoleon near Agrigentum.
About this time flourished Speusippus, Protogenes,
Aristotle, Æschines, Zenocrates, Demosthenes, Phocion,
Mamercus, Icetas, Stilpo, Demades 340

The battle of Cheronæa, August 2nd, where Philip defeats
the Athenians and Thebans 338

Philip of Macedon killed by Pausanius. His son Alexander,
on the following year, enters Greece, destroys Thebes, &c. 336

The battle of the Granicus, 22nd of May 334

The battle of Issus in October 333

Tyre and Egypt conquered by the Macedonian prince, and
Alexandria built 332

The battle of Arbela, October 2nd 331

Alexander’s expedition against Porus. About this time
flourished Apelles, Callisthenes, Bagoas, Parmenio,
Philotas, Memnon, Dinocrates, Calippus, Hyperides,
Philetus, Lysippus, Menedemus, &c. 327

Alexander dies on the 21st of April. His empire is divided
into four kingdoms. The Samian war, and the reign of the
Ptolemies in Egypt 323

Polyperchon publishes a general liberty to all the Greek
cities. The age of Praxiteles, Crates, Theophrastus,
Menander, Demetrius, Dinarchus, Polemon, Neoptolemus,
Perdiccas, Leosthenes 320

Syracuse and Sicily usurped by Agathocles. Demetrius
Phalereus governs Athens for 10 years 317

Eumenes delivered to Antigonus by his army 315

Seleucus takes Babylon, and here the beginning of the era
of the Seleucidæ 312

The conquests of Agathocles in Africa 309

Democracy established at Athens by Demetrius Poliorcetes 307

The title of kings first assumed by the successors of
Alexander 306

The battle of Ipsus, where Antigonus is defeated and killed
by Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus, and Cassander. About
this time flourished Zeno, Pyrrho, Philemon, Megasthenes,
Crantor, &c. 301

Athens taken by Demetrius Poliorcetes, after a year’s siege 296

The first sun-dial erected at Rome by Papirius Cursor, and
the time first divided into hours 293

Seleucus, about this time, built about 40 cities in Asia,
which he peopled with different nations. The age of
Euclid the mathematician, Arcesilaus, Epicurus, Bion,
Timocharis, Erasistratus, Aristyllus, Strato, Zenodotus,
Arsinoe, Lachares, &c. 291

The Athenians revolt from Demetrius 287

Pyrrhus expelled from Macedon by Lysimachus 286

The Pharos of Alexandria built. The Septuagint supposed to
be translated about this time 284

Lysimachus defeated and killed by Seleucus. The Tarentine
war begins, and continues 10 years. The Achæan league
begins 281

Pyrrhus of Epirus goes to Italy to assist the Tarentines 280

The Gauls, under Brennus, are cut to pieces near the temple
of Delphi. About this time flourished Dionysius the
astronomer, Sostratus, Theocritus, Dionysius Heracleotes,
Philo, Aratus, Lycophron, Persæus, &c. 278

Pyrrhus, defeated by Curius, retires to Epirus 274

The first coining of silver at Rome 269

Athens taken by Antigonus Gonatas, who keeps it 12 years 268

The first Punic war begins, and continues for 23 years. The
chronology of the Arundelian marbles composed. About this
time flourished Lycon, Crates, Berosus, Hermachus, Helenus,
Clinias, Aristotimus, &c. 264

Antiochus Soter defeated at Sardis by Eumenes of Pergamus 262

The Carthaginian fleet defeated by Duilius 260

Regulus defeated by Xanthippus. Athens is restored to
liberty by Antigonus 256

Aratus persuades the people of Sicyon to join the Achæan
league. About this time flourished Cleanthes, Homer
junior, Manetho, Timæus, Callimachus, Zoilus, Duris,
Neanthes, Ctesibius, Sosibius, Hieronymus, Hanno, Laodice,
Lysias, Ariobarzanes 251

The Parthians under Arsaces, and the Bactrians under
Theodotus, revolt from the Macedonians 250

The sea-fight of Drepanum 249

The citadel of Corinth taken by Aratus, 12th of August 243

Agis king of Sparta put to death for attempting to settle
an Agrarian law. About this period flourished Antigonus
Carystius, Conon of Samos, Eratosthenes, Apollonius of
Perga, Lacydes, Amilcar, Agesilaus the ephor, &c. 241

Plays first acted at Rome, being those of Livius Andronicus 240

Amilcar passes with an army to Spain, with Annibal his son 237

The temple of Janus shut at Rome, the first time since Numa 235

The Sardinian war begins, and continues three years 234

Original manuscripts of Æschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles,
lent by the Athenians to Ptolemy for a pledge of
15 talents 233

The first divorce known at Rome, by Spurius Carvilius.
Sardinia and Corsica conquered 231

The Roman ambassadors first appeared at Athens and Corinth 228

The war between Cleomenes and Aratus begins, and continues
for five years 227

The colossus of Rhodes thrown down by an earthquake. The
Romans first cross the Po, pursuing the Gauls, who had
entered Italy. About this time flourished Chrysippus,
Polystratus, Euphorion, Archimedes, Valerius Messala,
C. Nævius, Aristarchus, Apollonius, Philocorus, Aristo
Ceus, Fabius Pictor the first Roman historian, Philarchus,
Lysiades, Agro, &c. 224

The battle of Sellasia 222

The Social war between the Ætolians and Achæans, assisted
by Philip 220

Saguntum taken by Annibal 219

The second Punic war begins, and continues 17 years 218

The battle of the lake Thrasymenus, and next year that of
Cannæ, May 21st 217

The Romans begin the auxiliary war against Philip in Epirus,
which is continued by intervals for 14 years 214

Syracuse taken by Marcellus, after a siege of three years 212

Philopœmen defeats Machanidas at Mantinea 208

Asdrubal is defeated. About this time flourished Plautus,
Archagathus, Evander, Teleclus, Hermippus, Zeno, Sotion,
Ennius, Hieronymus of Syracuse, Tlepolemus, Epicydes 207

The battle of Zama 202

The first Macedonian war begins and continues near four
years 200

The battle of Panius, where Antiochus defeats Scopas 198

The battle of Cynoscephale, where Philip is defeated 197

The war of Antiochus the Great begins, and continues three
years 192

Lacedæmon joined to the Achæan league by Philopœmen 191

The luxuries of Asia brought to Rome in the spoils of
Antiochus 189

The laws of Lycurgus abrogated for a while at Sparta by
Philopœmen 188

Antiochus the Great defeated and killed in Media. About this
time flourished Aristophanes of Byzantium, Asclepiades,
Tegula, C. Lælius, Aristonymus, Hegesinus, Diogenes
the stoic, Critolaus, Massinissa, the Scipios, the Gracchi,
Thoas, &c. 187

A war, which continues for one year, between Eumenes and
Prusias, till the death of Annibal 184

Philopœmen defeated and killed by Dinocrates 183

Numa’s books found in a stone coffin at Rome 179

Perseus sends his ambassadors to Carthage 175

Ptolemy’s generals defeated by Antiochus, in a battle
between Pelusium and mount Cassius. The second Macedonian
war 171

The battle of Pydna, and the fall of the Macedonian empire.
About this period flourished Attalus the astronomer,
Metrodorus, Terence, Crates, Polybius, Pacuvius,
Hipparchus, Heraclides, Carneades, Aristarchus, &c. 168

The first library erected at Rome, with books obtained from
the plunder of Macedonia 167

Terence’s Andria first acted at Rome 166

Time measured out at Rome by a water-machine, invented
by Scipio Nasica, 134 years after the introduction of
sun-dials 159

Andriscus the Pseudophilip assumes the royalty of Macedonia 152

Demetrius king of Syria defeated and killed by Alexander
Balas 150

The third Punic war begins. Prusias king of Bithynia put to
death by his son Nicomedes 149

The Romans make war against the Achæans, which is finished
the next year by Mummius 148

Carthage is destroyed by Scipio, and Corinth by ♦Mummius 147

♦ ‘Mummus’ replaced with ‘Mummius’

Viriathus is defeated by Lælius, in Spain 146

The war of Numantia begins, and continues for eight years 141

The Roman army of 30,000, under Mancinus, is defeated by
4000 Numantines 138

Restoration of learning at Alexandria, and universal
patronage offered to all learned men by Ptolemy Physcon.
The age of Satyrus, Aristobulus, Lucius Accius, Mnaseas,
Antipater, Diodorus the peripatetic, Nicander, Ctesibius,
Sarpedon, Micipsa, &c. 137

The famous embassy of Scipio, Metellus, Mummius, and
Panætius, into Egypt, Syria, and Greece 136

The history of the Apocrypha ends. The Servile war in
Sicily begins, and continues for three years 135

Numantia taken. Pergamus annexed to the Roman empire 133

Antiochus Sidetes killed by Phraates. Aristonicus defeated
by Perpenna 130

Demetrius Nicator defeated at Damascus by Alexander Zebina 127

The Romans make war against the pirates of the Beleares.
Carthage is rebuilt by order of the Roman senate 123

Caius Gracchus killed 121

Dalmatia conquered by Metellus 118

Cleopatra assumes the government of Egypt. The age of
Erymnæus, Athenion, Artemidorus, Clitomachus, Apollonius,
Herodicus, Lucius Cælius, Castor, Menecrates, Lucilius, &c. 116

The Jugurthine war begins, and continues for five years 111

The famous sumptuary law at Rome, which limited the expenses
of eating every day 110

The Teutones and Cimbri begin their war against Rome, and
continue it for eight years 109

The Teutones defeat 80,000 Romans on the banks of the Rhone 105

The Teutones defeated by Caius Marius at Aquæ Sextiæ 102

The Cimbri defeated by Marius and Catulus 101

Dolabella conquers Lusitania 99

Cyrene left by Ptolemy Apion to the Romans 97

The Social war begins, and continues three years, till
finished by Sylla 91

The Mithridatic war begins, and continues 26 years 89

The civil wars of Marius and Sylla begin, and continue six
years 88

Sylla conquers Athens, and sends its valuable libraries to
Rome 86

Young Marius is defeated by Sylla, who is made dictator 82

The death of Sylla. About this time flourished Philo,
Charmidas, Asclepiades, Apellicon, Lucius Sisenna,
Alexander Polyhistor, Plotius Gallus, Diotimus, Zeno,
Hortensius, Archias, Posidonius, Geminus, &c. 78

Bithynia left by Nicomedes to the Romans 75

The Servile war, under Spartacus, begins, and, two years
after, the rebel general is defeated and killed by Pompey
and Crassus 73

Mithridates and Tigranes defeated by Lucullus 69

Mithridates conquered by Pompey in a night battle. Crete is
subdued by Metellus, after a war of two years 66

The reign of the Seleucidæ ends in Syria, on the conquest of
the country by Pompey 65

Catiline’s conspiracy detected by Cicero. Mithridates kills
himself 63

The first triumvirate in the person of Julius Cæsar, Pompey,
and Crassus. About this time flourished Apollonius of
Rhodes, Terentius Varro, Tyrannion, Aristodemus of Nysa,
Lucretius, Dionysius the grammarian, Cicero, Antiochus,
Spurinus, Andronicus, Catullus, Sallust, Timagenes,
Cratippus, &c. 60

Cicero banished from Rome, and recalled the next year 58

Cæsar passes the Rhine, defeats the Germans, and invades
Britain 55

Crassus is killed by Surena, in June 53

Civil war between Cæsar and Pompey 50

The battle of Pharsalia about May 12th 48

Alexander taken by Cæsar 47

The war of Africa. Cato kills himself. This year is called
the year of confusion, because the calendar was corrected
by Sosigenes, and the year made to consist of 15 months,
or 445 days 46

The battle of Munda 45

Cæsar murdered 44

The battle of Mutina. The second triumvirate in Octavius,
Antony, and Lepidus. Cicero put to death. The age of
Sosigenes, Cornelius Nepos, Diodorus Siculus, Trogus
Pompey, Didymus the scholiast, Varro the poet, &c. 43

The battle of Philippi 42

Pacorus general of Parthia defeated by Ventidius, 14 years
after the disgrace of Crassus, and on the same day 39

Pompey the younger defeated in Sicily by Octavius 36

Octavius and Antony prepare for war 32

The battle of Actium, 2nd September. The era of the Roman
emperors properly begins here 31

Alexander taken, and Egypt reduced into a Roman province 30

The title of Augustus given to Octavius 27

The Egyptians adopt the Julian year. About this time
flourished Virgil, Manilius, Dioscorides, Asinius Pollio,
Mæcenas, Agrippa, Strabo, Horace, Macer, Propertius, Livy,
Musa, Tibullus, Ovid, Pylades, Bathyllus, Varius, Tucca,
Vitruvius, &c. 25

The conspiracy of Muræna against Augustus 22

Augustus visits Greece and Asia 21

The Roman ensigns recovered from the Parthians by Tiberius 20

The secular games celebrated at Rome 17

Lollius defeated by the Germans 16

The Rhæti and Vindelici defeated by Drusus 15

The Pannonians conquered by Tiberius 12

Some of the German nations conquered by Drusus 11

Augustus corrects the calendar, by ordering the 12 ensuing
years to be without intercalation. About this time
flourished Damascenus, Hyginus, Flaccus the grammarian,
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and Dionysius the geographer 8

Tiberius retires to Rhodes for seven years 6

Our Saviour is born, four years before the vulgar era, in the
year 4709 of the Julian period, A.U.C. 749, and the fourth
of the 193rd Olympiad 4

A.D.
Tiberius returns to Rome 2

The leap year corrected, having formerly been every third
year 4

Ovid banished to Tomos 9

Varus defeated and killed in Germany by Arminius 10

Augustus dies at Nola, August 19th, and is succeeded by
Tiberius. The age of Phædrus, Asinius Gallus, Velleius
Paterculus, Germanicus, Cornel. Celsus, &c. 14

Twelve cities in Asia destroyed by an earthquake 17

Germanicus, poisoned by Piso, dies at Antioch 19

Tiberius goes to Capreæ 26

Sejanus disgraced 31

Our Saviour crucified, Friday, April 3rd. _This is put four
years earlier by some chronologists_ 33

St. Paul converted to Christianity 35

Tiberius dies at Misenum, near Baiæ, March 16th, and is
succeeded by Caligula. About this time flourished Valerius
Maximus, Columella, Pomponius Mela, Appion, Philo Judæus,
Artabanus, and Agrippina 37

St. Matthew writes his Gospel 39

The name of christians first given, at Antioch, to the
followers of our Saviour 40

Caligula murdered by Chæreas, and succeeded by Claudius 41

The expedition of Claudius into Britain 43

St. Mark writes his Gospel 44

Secular games celebrated at Rome 47

Caractacus carried in chains to Rome 51

Claudius succeeded by Nero 54

Agrippina put to death by her son Nero 59

First persecution against the christians 64

Seneca, Lucan, and others put to death 65

Nero visits Greece. The Jewish war begins. The age of
Persius, Quintus Curtius, Pliny the elder, Josephus,
Frontinus, Burrhus, Corbulo, Thrasea, Boadicea, &c. 66

St. Peter and St. Paul put to death 67

Nero dies, and is succeeded by Galba 68

Galba put to death. Otho, defeated by Vitellius, kills
himself. Vitellius is defeated by Vespasian’s army 69

Jerusalem taken and destroyed by Titus 70

The Parthians revolt 77

Death of Vespasian, and succession of Titus. Herculaneum
and Pompeii destroyed by an eruption of mount Vesuvius,
November 1st 79

Death of Titus, and succession of Domitian. The age of
Silius Italicus, Martial, Apollon. Tyanæus, Valerius
Flaccus, Solinus, Epictetus, Quintilian, Lupus, Agricola,
&c. 81

Capitoline games instituted by Domitian, and celebrated
every fourth year 86

Secular games celebrated. The war with Dacia begins, and
continues 15 years 88

Second persecution of the christians 95

Domitian put to death by Stephanus, &c., and succeeded by
Nerva. The age of Juvenal, Tacitus, Statius, &c. 96

Nerva dies, and is succeeded by Trajan 98

Pliny proconsul of Bithynia sends Trajan an account of the
christians 102

Dacia reduced to a Roman province 103

Trajan’s expedition against Parthia. About this time
flourished Florus, Suetonius, Pliny junior, Philo Biblius,
Dion, Prusæus, Plutarch, &c. 106

Third persecution of the christians 107

Trajan’s column erected at Rome 114

Trajan dies, and is succeeded by Adrian 117

Fourth persecution of the christians 118

Adrian builds a wall in Britain 121

Adrian visits Asia and Egypt for seven years 126

He rebuilds Jerusalem, and raises there a temple to Jupiter 130

The Jews rebel, and are defeated after a war of five years,
and all banished 131

Adrian dies, and is succeeded by Antoninus Pius. In the
reign of Adrian flourished Teon, Phavorinus, Phlegon,
Trallian, Aristides, Aquila, Salvius Julian, Polycarp,
Arian, Ptolemy, &c. 138

Antoninus defeats the Moors, Germans, and Dacians 145

The worship of Serapis brought to Rome 146

Antoninus dies, and is succeeded by Marcus Aurelius and
Lucius Verus, the last of whom reigned nine years.
In the reign of Antoninus flourished Maximus Tyrius,
Pausanias, Diophantus, Lucian, Hermogenes, Polyænus,
Appian, Artemidorus, Justin the martyr, Apuleius, &c. 161

A war with Parthia, which continues three years 162

A war against the Marcomanni, which continues five years 169

Another, which continues three years 177

Marcus Aurelius dies, and Commodus succeeds. In the last
reign flourished Galen, Athenagoras, Tatian, Athenæus,
Montanus, Diogenes, Laërtius 180

Commodus makes peace with the Germans 181

Commodus put to death by Martia and Lætus. He is succeeded
for a few months by Pertinax, who is murdered 193; and
four rivals arise, Didius Julianus, Pescennius Niger,
Severus, and Albinus. Under Commodus flourished Julius
Pollux, Theodotion, St. Irenæus, &c. 192

Niger is defeated by Severus at Issus 194

Albinus defeated in Gaul, and killed at Lyons, February 19th 198

Severus conquers the Parthians 200

Fifth persecution against the christians 202

Severus visits Britain, and two years after builds a wall
there across from the Frith of Forth 207

Severus dies at York, and is succeeded by Caracalla and
Geta. In his reign flourished Tertullian, Minutius
Felix, Papinianus, Clemens of Alexandria, Philostratus,
Plotianus, and Bulas 211

Geta killed by his brother Caracalla 212

The Septuagint discovered. Caracalla murdered by Macrinus.
Flourished Oppian 217

Opilius ♦Macrinus killed by the soldiers, and succeeded by
Heliogabalus 218

♦ ‘Macrinius’ replaced with ‘Macrinus’

Alexander Severus succeeds Heliogabalus. The Goths then
exacted an annual payment not to invade or molest the
Roman empire. The age of Julius Africanus 222

The Arsacidæ of Parthia are conquered by Artaxerxes king
of Media, and their empire destroyed 229

Alexander defeats the Persians 234

The sixth persecution against the christians 235

Alexander killed and succeeded by Maximinus. At that time
flourished Dion Cassius, Origen, and Ammonius 235

The two Gordians succeeded Maximinus, and are put to death
by Pupienus, who soon after is destroyed, with Balbinus,
by the soldiers of the younger Gordian 236

Sarbinianus defeated in Africa 240

Gordian marches against the Persians 242

He is put to death by Philip, who succeeds, and makes peace
with Sapor the next year. About this time flourished
Censorius, and Gregory Thaumaturgus 244

Philip killed, and succeeded by Decius. Herodian flourished 249

The seventh persecution against the christians 250

Decius succeeded by Gallus 251

A great pestilence over the empire 252

Gallus dies, and is succeeded by Æmilianus, Valerianus, and
Gallienus. In the reign of Gallus flourished St. Cyprian
and Plotinus 254

The eighth persecution against the christians 257

The empire is harassed by 30 tyrants successively 258

Valerian is taken by Sapor and flayed alive 260

Odenatus governs the east for Gallienus 264

The Scythians and Goths defeated by Cleodamus and Athenæus 267

Gallienus killed, and succeeded by Claudius. In this reign
flourished Longinus, Paulus Samosatenus, &c. 268

Claudius conquers the Goths, and kills 300,000 of them.
Zenobia takes possession of Egypt 269

Aurelian succeeds 270

The ninth persecution against the christians 272

Zenobia defeated by Aurelian at Edessa 273

Dacia ceded to the Barbarians by the emperor 274

Aurelian killed, and succeeded by Tacitus, who died after a
reign of six months, and was succeeded by Florianus, and,
two months after, by Probus 275

Probus makes an expedition into Gaul 277

He defeats the Persians in the east 280

Probus is put to death, and succeeded by Carus, and his
sons Carinus and Numerianus 282

Diocletian succeeds 284

The empire attacked by the Barbarians of the north.
Diocletian takes Maximianus as his imperial colleague 286

Britain recovered, after a tyrant’s usurpation of 10 years.
Alexandria taken by Diocletian 296

The tenth persecution against the christians, which
continues 10 years 303

Diocletian and Maximianus abdicate the empire, and live in
retirement, succeeded by Constantius Chlorus and Galerius
Maximianus the two Cæsars. About this period flourished
Julius Capitolinus, Arnobius, Gregory and Hermogenes the
lawyers, Ælius Spartianus, Hierocles, Flavius Vopiscus,
Trebellius Pollio, &c. 304

Constantius dies, and is succeeded by his son 306

At this time there were four emperors, Constantine,
Licinius, Maximianus, and Maxentius 308

Maxentius defeated and killed by Constantine 312

The emperor Constantine begins to favour the christian
religion 319

Licinius defeated and banished by Constantine 324

The first general Council of Nice, composed of 318 bishops,
who sit from June 19th to August 25th 325

The seat of the empire removed from Rome to Constantinople 328

Constantinople solemnly dedicated by the emperor on the
11th of May 330

Constantine orders all the heathen temples to be destroyed 331

The death of Constantine, and succession of his three sons,
Constantinus, Constans, and Constantius. In the reign of
Constantine flourished Lactantius, Athanasius, Arius, and
Eusebius 337

Constantine the younger defeated and killed by Constans at
Aquilea 340

Constans killed in Spain by Magnentius 350

Gallus put to death by Constantius 354

One hundred and fifty cities of Greece and Asia ruined by
an earthquake 358

Constantius and Julian quarrel, and prepare for war; but
the former dies the next year, and leaves the latter
sole emperor. About this period flourished Ælius Donatus,
Eutropius, Libanius, Ammian. Marcellinus, Jamblicus,
St. Hilary, &c. 360

Julian dies, and is succeeded by Jovian. In Julian’s reign
flourished Gregory Nazienzen, Themistius, Aurelius Victor,
&c. 363

Upon the death of Jovian, and the succession of Valens
and Valentinian, the empire is divided, the former being
emperor of the east, and the other of the west 364

Gratian taken as partner in the western empire by
Valentinian 367

Firmus tyrant of Africa defeated 373

Valentinian II. succeeds Valentinian I. 375

The Goths permitted to settle in Thrace, on being expelled
by the Huns 376

Theodosius the Great succeeds Valens in the eastern empire.
The Lombards first leave Scandinavia and defeat the
Vandals 379

Gratian defeated and killed by Andragathius 383

The tyrant Maximus defeated and put to death by Theodosius 388

Eugenius usurps the western empire, and is two years after
defeated by Theodosius 392

Theodosius dies, and is succeeded by his sons, Arcadius
in the east and Honorius in the west. In the reign of
Theodosius flourished Ausonius, Eunapius, Pappus, Theon,
Prudentius, St. Austin, St. Jerome, St. Ambrose, &c. 395

Gildo, defeated by his own brother, kills himself 398

Stilicho defeats 200,000 of the Goths at Fesulæ 405

The Vandals, Alani, and Suevi permitted to settle in Spain
and France by Honorius 406

Theodosius the younger succeeds Arcadius in the east,
having Isdegerdes king of Persia as his guardian,
appointed by his father 408

Rome plundered by Alaric king of the Visigoths, August 24th 410

The Vandals begin their kingdom in Spain 412

The kingdoms of the Burgundians is begun in Alsace 413

The Visigoths found a kingdom at Toulouse 415

The Alani defeated and extirpated by the Goths 417

The kingdom of the French begins on the Lower Rhine 420

The death of Honorius, and succession of Valentinian III.
Under Honorius flourished Sulpicius Severus, Macrobius,
Anianus, Panodorus, Stobæus, Servius the commentator,
Hypatia, Pelagius, Synesius, Cyrill, Orosius, Socrates,
&c. 423

Theodosius establishes public schools at Constantinople,
and attempts the restoration of learning 425

The Romans take leave of Britain and never return 426

Pannonia recovered from the Huns by the Romans. The Vandals
pass into Africa 427

The French defeated by Ætius 428

The Theodosian code published 435

Genseric the Vandal takes Carthage, and begins the kingdom
of the Vandals in Africa 439

The Britons, abandoned by the Romans, make their celebrated
complaint to Ætius against the Picts and Scots, and
three years after the Saxons settle in Britain, upon the
invitation of Vortigern 446

Attila king of the Huns ravages Europe 447

Theodosius II. dies, and is succeeded by Marcianus. About
this time flourished Zozimus, Nestorius, Theodoret,
Sozomen, Olympiodorus, &c. 450

The city of Venice first began to be known 452

Death of Valentinian III., who is succeeded by Maximus for
two months, by Avitus for 10, and, after an interregnum
of 10 months, by Majorianus 454

Rome taken by Genseric in July. The kingdom of Kent first
established 455

The Suevi defeated by Theodoric on the Ebro 456

Marcianus dies, and is succeeded by Leo, surnamed the
Thracian. Vortimer defeated by Hengist at Crayford, in
Kent 457

Severus succeeds in the western empire 461

The paschal cycle of 532 years invented by Victorius of
Aquitain 463

♦Anthemius succeeds in the western empire, after an
interregnum of two years 467

♦ ‘Athemius’ replaced with ‘Anthemius’

Olybrius succeeds Anthemius, and is succeeded, the next
year, by Glycerius, and Glycerius by Nepos 472

Nepos is succeeded by Augustulus. Leo junior, son of
Ariadne, though an infant, succeeds his grandfather
Leo in the eastern empire, and, some months after, is
succeeded by his father Zeno 474

The western empire is destroyed by Odoacer king of the
Heruli, who assumes the title of king of Italy. About
this time flourished Eutyches, Prosper, Victorius,
Sidonius Apollinaris 476

Constantinople partly destroyed by an earthquake, which
lasted 40 days at intervals 480

The battle of Soissons and victory of Clovis over Siagrius
the Roman general 485

After the death of Zeno in the east, Ariadne married
Anastasius, surnamed the Silentiary, who ascends the
vacant throne 491

Theodoric king of the Ostrogoths revolts about this time,
and conquers Italy from the Heruli. About this time
flourished Boethius and Symmachus 493

Christianity embraced in France by the baptism of Clovis 496

The Burgundian laws published by king Gondebaud 501

Alaric defeated by Clovis at the battle of Vorcillè near
Poitiers 507

Paris made the capital of the French dominions 510

Constantinople besieged by Vitalianus, whose fleet is
burned with a brazen speculum by Proclus 514

The computing of time by the christian era, introduced
first by Dionysius 516

Justin I., a peasant of Dalmatia, makes himself emperor 518

Justinian I. nephew of Justin succeeds. Under his glorious
reign flourished Belisarius, Jornandes, Paul the
Silentiary, Simplicius, Dionysius, Procopius, Proclus,
Narses, &c. 527

Justinian publishes his celebrated code of laws, and four
years after his digest 529

Conquest of Africa by Belisarius, and that of Rome, two
years after 534

Italy is invaded by the Franks 538

The Roman consulship suppressed by Justinian 542

A great plague, which arose in Africa, and desolated Asia
and Europe 543

The beginning of the Turkish empire in Asia 545

Rome taken and pillaged by Totila 547

The manufacture of silk introduced from India into Europe
by monks 551

Defeat and death of Totila the Gothic king of Italy 553

A dreadful plague over Africa, Asia, and Europe, which
continues for 50 years 558

Justin II., son of Vigilantia the sister of Justinian,
succeeds 565

Part of Italy conquered by the Lombards from Pannonia, who
form a kingdom there 568

Tiberius II., an officer of the imperial guards, is adopted,
and soon after succeeds 578

Latin ceases to be the language of Italy about this time 581

Maurice the Cappadocian, son-in-law of Tiberius, succeeds 582

Gregory I., surnamed the Great, fills St. Peter’s chair at
Rome. The few men of learning who flourished the latter
end of this century were Gildas, Agathias, Gregory of
Tours the father of French history, Evagrius, and St.
Augustin the monk 590

Augustin the monk, with 40 others, comes to preach
christianity in England 597

About this time the Saxon heptarchy began in England 600

Phocas, a simple centurion, is elected emperor after the
revolt of the soldiers, and the murder of Maurice and of
his children 602

The power of the popes begins to be established by the
concessions of Phocas 606

Heraclius, an officer in Africa, succeeds, after the murder
of the usurper Phocas 610

The conquests of Chosroes king of Persia, in Syria, Egypt,
Asia Minor, and afterwards his siege of Rome 611

The Persians take Jerusalem with the slaughter of 90,000
men, and the next year they overrun Africa 614

Mahomet, in his 53rd year, flies from Mecca to Medina,
on Friday, July 16th, which forms the first year of the
Hegira, the era of the Mahometans 622

Constantinople is besieged by the Persians and Arabs 626

Death of Mahomet 632

Jerusalem taken by the Saracens, and three years after
Alexandria and its famous library destroyed 637

Constantine III. son of Heraclius, in partnership with
Heracleonas, his brother by the same father, assumes
the imperial purple. Constantine reigns 103 days, and
after his death, his son. Constantine’s son Constans is
declared emperor, though Heracleonas, with his mother
Martina, wished to continue in possession of the supreme
power 641

Cyprus taken by the Saracens 648

The Saracens take Rhodes, and destroy the Colossus 653

Constantine IV., surnamed Pogonatus, succeeds, on the
murder of his father in Sicily 668

The Saracens ravage Sicily 669

Constantinople besieged by the Saracens, whose fleet is
destroyed by the Greek fire 673

Justinian II. succeeds his father Constantine. In his
exile of 10 years the purple was usurped by Leontius
and Absimerus Tiberius. His restoration happened 704.
The only men of learning in this century were Secundus,
Isidorus, Theophylactus, Georgius Pisides, Callinicus,
and the venerable Bede 685

Pepin engrosses the power of the whole French monarchy 690

Africa finally conquered by the Saracens 709

Bardanes, surnamed Philippicus, succeeds at Constantinople,
on the murder of Justinian 711

Spain is conquered by the Saracens. Accession of Artemius,
or Anastasius II., to the throne 713

Anastasius abdicates, and is succeeded by Theodosius III.,
who, two years after, yields to the superior influence of
Leo III., the first of the Isaurian dynasty 715

Second, but unsuccessful, siege of Constantinople by the
Saracens 717

Tax called Peter-pence begun by Ina king of Wessex, to
support a college at Rome 727

Saracens defeated by Charles Martel between Tours and
Poitiers in October 732

Constantine V., surnamed Copronymus, succeeds his father
Leo 741

Dreadful pestilence for three years over Europe and Asia 746

The computation of years from the birth of Christ first
used in historical writings 748

Learning encouraged by the race of Abbas caliph of the
Saracens 749

The Merovingian race of kings ends in France 750

Bagdad built, and made the capital of the caliphs of the
house of Abbas 762

A violent frost for 150 days from October to February 763

Monasteries dissolved in the east by Constantine 770

Pavia taken by Charlemagne, which ends the kingdom of the
Lombards, after a duration of 206 years 774

Leo IV. son of Constantine succeeds, and, five years after,
is succeeded by his wife Irene and his son Constantine VI. 775

Irene murders her son and reigns alone. The only men
of learning in this century were Johannes Damascenus,
Fredegaire, Alcuinus, Paulus Diaconus, and George the
monk 797

Charlemagne is crowned emperor of Rome and of the western
empire. About this time the popes separate themselves
from the princes of Constantinople 800

Egbert ascends the throne of England, but the total
reduction of the Saxon heptarchy is not effected till
26 years after 801

Nicephorus I., great treasurer of the empire, succeeds 802

Stauracius son of Nicephorus, and Michael I., surnamed
Rhangabe, the husband of Procopia sister of Stauracius,
assume the purple 811

Leo V. the Armenian, though but an officer of the palace,
ascends the throne of Constantinople 813

Learning encouraged among the Saracens by Almanon, who
made observations on the sun, &c. 816

Michael II. the Thracian, surnamed the Stammerer, succeeds,
after the murder of Leo 821

The Saracens of Spain take Crete, which they call Candia 823

The Almagest of Ptolemy translated into Arabic by order of
Almanon 827

Theophilus succeeds his father Michael 829

Origin of the Russian monarchy 839

Michael III. succeeds his father Theophilus with his mother
Theodora 842

The Normans get possession of some cities in France 853

Michael is murdered, and succeeded by Basil I. the
Macedonian 867

Clocks first brought to Constantinople from Venice 872

Basil is succeeded by his son Leo VI. the philosopher.
In this century flourished Mesué, the Arabian physician
Eginhard, Rabanus, Albumasar, Godescalchus, Hincmarus,
Odo, Photius, John Scotus, Anastasius the librarian,
Alfraganus, Albategni, Reginon, John Asser 886

Paris besieged by the Normans, and bravely defended by
bishop Goslin 887

Death of Alfred king of England, after a reign of 30 years 900

Alexander brother of Leo succeeds, with his nephew
Constantine VII., surnamed Porphyrogenitus 911

The Normans establish themselves in France under Rollo 912

Romanus I., surnamed Lecapenus, general of the fleet,
usurps the throne, with his three sons, Christopher,
Stephen, and Constantine VIII. 919

Fiefs established in France 923

Saracen empire divided by usurpation into seven kingdoms 936

Naples seized by the eastern emperors 942

The sons of Romanus conspire against their father, and
the tumults this occasioned produced the restoration of
Porphyrogenitus 945

Romanus II. son of Constantine VII., by Helena the daughter
of Lecapenus, succeeds 959

Romanus, poisoned by his wife Theophana, is succeeded
by Nicephorus Phocas II., whom the empress, unable to
reign alone under the title of protectress of her young
children, had married 963

Italy conquered by Otho, and united to the German empire 964

Nicephorus, at the instigation of Theophana, is murdered by
John Zimisces, who assumes the purple 969

Basil II., and Constantine IX., the two sons of Romanus by
♦Theophana, succeed on the death of Zimisces 975

♦ ‘Theopana’ replaced with ‘Theophana’

The third or Capetian race of kings in France begins July
3rd 987

Arithmetical figures brought into Europe from Arabia by the
Saracens 991

The empire of Germany first made elective by Otho III. The
learned men of this century were Eudes de Cluni, Azophi,
Luitprand, Alfarabius, Rhazes, Geber, Abbo, Aimoin,
Gerbert 996

A general massacre of the Danes in England, Nov. 13th 1002

All old churches about this time rebuilt in a new manner
of architecture 1005

Flanders inundated in consequence of a violent storm 1014

Constantine becomes sole emperor on the death of his
brother 1025

Romanus III., surnamed Argyrus, a patrician, succeeds by
marrying Zoe the daughter of the late monarch 1028

Zoe, after prostituting herself to a Paphlagonian
money-lender, causes her husband Romanus to be poisoned,
and afterwards marries her favourite, who ascends the
throne under the name of Michael IV. 1034

The kingdoms of Castile and Arragon begin 1035

Zoe adopts for her son Michael V., the trade of whose
father (careening vessels) had procured him the surname
of Calaphates 1041

Zoe and her sister Theodora are made sole empresses by the
populace, but after two months Zoe, though 60 years old,
takes for her third husband Constantine X., who succeeds 1042

The Turks invade the Roman empire 1050

After the death of Constantine, Theodora recovers the
sovereignty, and, 19 months after, adopts, as her
successor, Michael VI., surnamed Stratioticus 1054

Isaac Commenus I. chosen emperor by the soldiers 1057

Isaac abdicates, and when his brother refuses to succeed
him, he appoints his friend Constantine XI., surnamed
Ducas 1059

Jerusalem conquered by the Turks from the Saracens 1065

The crown of England is transferred from the head of Harold
by the battle of Hastings, October the 14th, to William
the Conqueror, duke of Normandy 1066

On the death of Ducas, his wife Eudocia, instead of
protecting his three sons, Michael, Andronicus, and
Constantine, usurps the sovereignty, and marries
Romanus III., surnamed Diogenes 1067

Romanus being taken prisoner by the Turks, the three young
princes ascend the throne, under the name of Michael
Parapinaces VII., Andronicus I., and Constantine XII. 1071

The general Nicephorus Botaniates III. assumes the purple 1078

Doomsday-book begun to be compiled from a general survey
of the estates of England, and finished in six years 1080