Chapter 3: , page 89 (16)

"From the words 'ad' and 'panis,' meaning that it was to
provide bread for the person who held it. A portion of
appanage was now given to each of the king's younger sons,
which descended to his direct heirs, but in default of them
reverted to the crown."

_T. Wright,
History of France,
volume 1, page 308, note._

APPIAN WAY, The.

Appius Claudius, called the Blind, who was censor at Rome from
312 to 308 B. C. [see ROME: B. C. 312], constructed during
that time "the Appian road, the queen of roads, because the
Latin road, passing by Tusculum, and through the country of
the Hernicans, was so much endangered, and had not yet been
quite recovered by the Romans: the Appian road, passing by
Terracina, Fundi and Mola, to Capua, was intended to be a
shorter and safer one. … The Appian road, even if Appius did
carry it as far as Capua, was not executed by him with that
splendour for which we still admire it in those parts which
have not been destroyed intentionally: the closely joined
polygons of basalt, which thousands of years have not been
able to displace, are of a somewhat later origin. Appius
commenced the road because there was actual need for it; in
the year A. U. 457 [B. C. 297] peperino, and some years later
basalt (silex) was first used for paving roads, and, at the
beginning, only on the small distance from the Porta Capena to
the temple of Mars, as we are distinctly told by Livy. Roads
constructed according to artistic principles had
previously existed."

_B. G. Niebuhr,
Lectures on the History of Rome,
lecture 45._

ALSO IN:
_Sir W. Gell,
Topography of Rome,
volume 1._

_H. G. Liddell,
History of ROME,
volume 1, page 251._

APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE, Lee's Surrender at.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (APRIL, VIRGINIA).

APULEIAN LAW.

See MAJESTAS.

APULIA: A. D. 1042-1127.
Norman conquest and Dukedom.
Union with Sicily.

See ITALY (SOUTHERN): A. D. 1000-1090, and 1081-1194.

APULIANS, The.

See SABINES; also, SAMNITES.

AQUÆ SEXTIÆ.

See SALYES.

AQUÆ SEXTIÆ, Battle of.

See CIMBRI AND TEUTONES: B. C. 113-102.

AQUÆ SOLIS.

The Roman name of the long famous watering-place known in
modern England as the city of Bath. It was splendidly adorned
in Roman times with temples and other edifices.

_T. Wright,
Celt, Roman and Saxon,
chapter 5._

AQUIDAY, OR AQUETNET.
The native name of Rhode Island.

See RHODE ISLAND: A. D. 1638-1640.

AQUILA, Battle of (1424).

See ITALY: A. D. 1412-1447.

AQUILEIA.

Aquileia, at the time of the destruction of that city by the
Huns, A. D. 452, was, "both as a fortress and a commercial
emporium, second to none in Northern Italy. It was situated at
the northernmost point of the gulf of Hadria, about twenty
miles northwest of Trieste, and the place where it once stood
is now in the Austrian dominions, just over the border which
separates them from the kingdom of Italy. In the year 181 B.
C. a Roman colony had been sent to this far corner of Italy to
serve as an outpost against some intrusive tribes, called by
the vague name of Gauls. … Possessing a good harbour, with
which it was connected by a navigable river, Aquileia
gradually became the chief entrepôt for the commerce between
Italy and what are now the Illyrian provinces of Austria."

_T. Hodgkin,
Italy and Her Invaders,
book 2, chapter 4._

AQUILEIA: A. D. 238.
Siege by Maximin.

See ROME: A. D. 238.

AQUILEIA: A. D. 388.
Overthrow of Maximus by Theodosius.

See ROME: A. D. 379-395.

AQUILEIA: A. D. 452.
Destruction by the Huns.

See HUNS: A. D. 452;
also, VENICE: A. D. 452.

----------AQUILEIA: End----------

AQUITAINE:
The ancient tribes.

The Roman conquest of Aquitania was achieved, B. C. 56, by one
of Cæsar's lieutenants, the Younger Crassus, who first brought
the people called the Sotiates to submission and then defeated
their combined neighbors in a murderous battle, where
three-fourths of them are said to have been slain. The tribes
which then submitted "were the Tarbelli, Bigerriones,
Preciani, Vocates, Tarusates, Elusates, Garites, Ausci,
Garumni, Sibuzates and Cocosates. The Tarbelli were in the
lower basin of the Adour. Their chief place was on the site of
the hot springs of Dax. The Bigerriones appear in the name
Bigorre. The chief place of the Elusates was Elusa, Eause; and
the town of Auch on the river Gers preserves the name of the
Ausci. The names Garites, if the name is genuine, and Garumni
contain the same element, Gar, as the river Garumna [Garonne]
and the Gers. It is stated by Walckenaer that the inhabitants
of the southern part of Les Landes are still called Cousiots.
Cocosa, Caussèque, is twenty-four miles from Dax on the road
from Dax to Bordeaux."

_G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 4, chapter 6._

"Before the arrival of the brachycephalic Ligurian race, the
Iberians ranged over the greater part of France. … If, as
seems probable, we may identify them with the Aquitani, one of
the three races which occupied Gaul in the time of Cæsar, they
must have retreated to the neighbourhood of the Pyrenees
before the beginning of the historic period."

_I. Taylor,
Origin of the Aryans,
chapter 2, section 5._

AQUITAINE: In Cæsar's time.

See GAUL DESCRIBED BY CÆSAR.

AQUITAINE: Settlement of the Visigoths.

See GOTHS (VISIGOTHS): A. D. 410-419.

AQUITAINE: A. D. 567.
Divided between the Merovingian Kings.

See FRANKS: A. D. 511-752.

{120}

AQUITAINE: A. D. 681-768.
The independent Dukes and their subjugation.

"The old Roman Aquitania, in the first division of the spoils
of the Empire, had fallen to the Visigoths, who conquered it
without much trouble. In the struggle between them and the
Merovingians, it of course passed to the victorious party. But
the quarrels, so fiercely contested between the different
members of the Frank monarchy, prevented them from retaining a
distant possession within their grasp; and at this period
[681-718, when the Mayors of the Palace, Pepin and Carl, were
gathering the reins of government over the three
kingdoms—Austrasia, Neustria and Burgundy—into their hands].
Eudo, the duke of Aquitaine, was really an independent prince.
The population had never lost its Roman character; it was, in
fact, by far the most Romanized in the whole of Gaul. But it
had also received a new element in the Vascones or Gascons
[see BASQUES], a tribe of Pyrenean mountaineers, who
descending from their mountains, advanced towards the north
until their progress was checked by the broad waters of the
Garonne. At this time, however, they obeyed Eudo. "This duke
of Aquitaine, Eudo, allied himself with the Neustrians against
the ambitious Austrasian Mayor, Carl Martel, and shared with
them the crushing defeat at Soissons, A. D. 718, which
established the Hammerer's power. Eudo acknowledged allegiance
and was allowed to retain his dukedom. But, half-a-century
afterwards, Carl's son, Pepin, who had pushed the 'fainéant'
Merovingians from the Frank throne and seated himself upon it,
fought a nine years' war with the then duke of Aquitaine, to
establish his sovereignty. "The war, which lasted nine years
[760-768], was signalized by frightful ravages and destruction
of life upon both sides, until, at last, the Franks became
masters of Berri, Auvergne, and the Limousin, with their
principal cities. The able and gallant Guaifer [or Waifer] was
assassinated by his own subjects, and Pepin had the
satisfaction of finally uniting the grand-duchy of Aquitaine
to the monarchy of the Franks."

_J. G. Sheppard,
Fall of Rome,
lecture 8._

ALSO IN:
_P. Godwin,
History of France: Ancient Gaul,
chapters 14-15_.

_W. H. Perry,
The Franks,
chapter 5-6._

AQUITAINE: A. D. 732.
Ravaged by the Moslems.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 715-732.

AQUITAINE: A. D. 781.
Erected into a separate kingdom by Charlemagne.

In the year 781 Charlemagne erected Italy and Aquitaine into
separate kingdoms, placing his two infant sons, Pepin and
Ludwig or Louis on their respective thrones. "The kingdom of
Aquitaine embraced Vasconia [Gascony], Septimania, Aquitaine
proper (that is, the country between the Garonne and the
Loire) and the county, subsequently the duchy, of Toulouse.
Nominally a kingdom, Aquitaine was in reality a province,
entirely dependent on the central or personal government of
Charles. … The nominal designations of king and kingdom
might gratify the feelings of the Aquitanians, but it was a
scheme contrived for holding them in a state of absolute
dependence and subordination."

_J. I. Mombert,
History of Charles the Great,
book 2, chapter 11._

AQUITAINE: A. D. 843.
In the division of Charlemagne's Empire.

See FRANCE: A. D.843.

AQUITAINE: A. D. 884-1151.
The end of the nominal kingdom.
The disputed Ducal Title.

"Carloman [who died 884], son of Louis the Stammerer, was the
last of the Carlovingians who bore the title of king of
Aquitaine. This vast state ceased from this time to constitute
a kingdom. It had for a lengthened period been divided between
powerful families, the most illustrious of which are those of
the Counts of Toulouse, founded in the ninth century by
Fredelon, the Counts of Poitiers, the Counts of Auvergne, the
Marquises of Septimania or Gothia, and the Dukes of Gascony.
King Eudes had given William the Pius, Count of Auvergne, the
Investiture of the duchy of Aquitaine. On the extinction of
that family in 928, the Counts of Toulouse and those of Poitou
disputed the prerogatives and their quarrel stained the south
with blood for a long time. At length the Counts of Poitou
acquired the title of Dukes of Aquitaine or Guyenne [or
Guienne,—supposed to be a corruption of the name of
Aquitaine, which came into use during the Middle Ages], which
remained in their house up to the marriage of Eleanor of
Aquitaine with Henry Plantagenet I. [Henry II.], King of
England (1151)."

_E. De Bonnechose,
History of France,
book 2, chapter 3, foot-note._

"The duchy Aquitaine, or Guyenne, as held by Eleanor's
predecessors, consisted, roughly speaking, of the territory
between the Loire and the Garonne. More exactly, it was
bounded on the north by Anjou and Touraine, on the east by
Berry and Auvergne, on the south-east by the Quercy or County
of Cahors, and on the south-west by Gascony, which had been
united with it for the last hundred years. The old Karolingian
kingdom of Aquitania had been of far greater extent; it had,
in fact, included the whole country between the Loire, the
Pyrenees, the Rhone and the ocean. Over all this vast
territory the Counts of Poitou asserted a theoretical claim of
overlordship by virtue of their ducal title; they had,
however, a formidable rival in the house of the Counts of
Toulouse."

_K. Norgate,
England under the Angevin Kings,
volume 1, chapter 10._

See, also, TOULOUSE: 10TH AND 11TH CENTURIES.

AQUITAINE: A. D. 1137-1152.
Transferred by marriage from the crown of France to the crown
of England.

In 1137, "the last of the old line of the dukes of
Aquitaine—William IX., son of the gay crusader and troubadour
whom the Red King had hoped to succeed—died on a pilgrimage
at Compostella. His only son was already dead, and before
setting out for his pilgrimage he did what a greater personage
had done ten years before: with the consent of his barons, he
left the whole of his dominions to his daughter. Moreover, he
bequeathed the girl herself as wife to the young king Louis
[VII.] of France. This marriage more than doubled the strength
of the French crown. It gave to Louis absolute possession of
all western Aquitaine, or Guyenne as it was now beginning to
be called; that is the counties of Poitou and Gascony, with
the immediate overlordship of the whole district lying between
the Loire and the Pyrenees, the Rhone and the ocean:—a
territory five or six times as large as his own royal domain
and over which his predecessors had never been able to assert
more than the merest shadow of a nominal superiority." In 1152
Louis obtained a divorce from Eleanor, surrendering all the
great territory which she had added to his dominions, rather
than maintain an unhappy union. The same year the gay duchess
was wedded to Henry Plantagenet, then Duke of Normandy,
afterwards Henry II. King of England. By this marriage
Aquitaine became joined to the crown of England and remained
so for three hundred years.

_K. Norgate,
England under the Angevin Kings,
volume 1, chapter 8._

{121}

AQUITAINE: 12th Century.
The state of the southern parts.

See PROVENCE: A. D. 1179-1207.

AQUITAINE: A. D. 1360-1453.
Full sovereignty possessed by the English Kings.
The final conquest and union with France.

"By the Peace of Bretigny [see FRANCE: A. D. 1337-1360] Edward
III. resigned his claims on the crown of France; but he was
recognized in return as independent Prince of Aquitaine,
without any homage or superiority being reserved to the French
monarch. When Aquitaine therefore was conquered by France,
partly in the 14th, fully in the 15th century [see FRANCE: A.
D. 1431-1453], it was not the 'reunion' of a forfeited fief,
but the absorption of a distinct and sovereign state. The
feelings of Aquitaine itself seem to have been divided. The
nobles to a great extent, though far from universally,
preferred the French connexion. It better fell in with their
notions of chivalry, feudal dependency, and the like; the
privileges too which French law conferred on noble birth would
make their real interests lie that way. But the great cities
and, we have reason to believe, the mass of the people, also,
clave faithfully to their ancient Dukes; and they had good
reason to do so. The English Kings, both by habit and by
interest, naturally protected the municipal liberties of
Bourdeaux and Bayonne, and exposed no part of their subjects
to the horrors of French taxation and general oppression."

_E. A. Freeman,
The Franks and the Gauls
(Historical Essays, 1st Series, No.7)._

----------AQUITAINE: End----------

AQUITANI, The.

See IBERIANS, THE WESTERN.

ARABIA. ARABS: The Name.

"There can be no doubt that the name of the Arabs was …
given from their living at the westernmost part of Asia; and
their own word 'Gharb,' the 'West,' is another form of the
original Semitic name Arab."

_G. Rawlinson,
Notes to Herodotus,
volume 2, page 71._

ARABIA:
The ancient succession and fusion of Races.

"The population of Arabia, after long centuries, more
especially after the propagation and triumph of Islamism,
became uniform throughout the peninsula. … But it was not
always thus. It was very slowly and gradually that the
inhabitants of the various parts of Arabia were fused into one
race. … Several distinct races successively immigrated into
the peninsula and remained separate for many ages. Their
distinctive characteristics, their manners and their
civilisation prove that these nations were not all of one
blood. Up to the time of Mahomet, several different languages
were spoken in Arabia, and it was the introduction of Islamism
alone that gave predominence to that one amongst them now
called Arabic. The few Arabian historians deserving of the
name, who have used any discernment in collecting the
traditions of their country, Ibn Khaldoun, for example,
distinguish three successive populations in the peninsula.
They divide these primitive, secondary, and tertiary Arabs
into three divisions, called Ariba, Motareba, and Mostareba.
… The Ariba were the first and most ancient inhabitants of
Arabia. They consisted principally of two great nations, the
Adites, sprung from Ham, and the Amalika of the race of Aram,
descendants of Shem, mixed with nations of secondary
importance, the Thamudites of the race of Ham, and the people
of the Tasm, and Jadis, of the family of Aram. The Motareba
were tribes sprung from Joktan, son of Eber, always in Arabian
tradition called Kahtan. The Mostareba of more modern origin
were Ismaelitish tribes. … The Cushites, the first
inhabitants of Arabia, are known in the national traditions by
the name of Adites, from their progenitor, who is called Ad,
the grandson of Ham. All the accounts given of them by Arab
historians are but fanciful legends. … In the midst of all
the fabulous traits with which these legends abound, we may
perceive the remembrance of a powerful empire founded by the
Cushites in very early ages, apparently including the whole of
Arabia Felix, and not only Yemen proper. We also find traces
of a wealthy nation, constructors of great buildings, with an
advanced civilisation analogous to that of Chaldæa, professing
a religion similar to the Babylonian; a nation, in short, with
whom material progress was allied to great moral depravity and
obscene rites. … It was about eighteen centuries before our
era that the Joktanites entered Southern Arabia. … According
to all appearances, the invasion, like all events of a similar
nature, was accomplished only by force. … After this
invasion, the Cushite element of the population, being still
the most numerous, and possessing great superiority in
knowledge and civilisation over the Joktanites, who were still
almost in the nomadic state, soon recovered the moral and
material supremacy, and political dominion. A new empire was
formed in which the power still belonged to the Sabæans of the
race of Cush. … Little by little the new nation of Ad was
formed. The centre of its power was the country of Sheba
proper, where, according to the tenth chapter of Genesis,
there was no primitive Joktanite tribe, although in all the
neighbouring provinces they were already settled. … It was
during the first centuries of the second Adite empire that
Yemen was temporarily subjected by the Egyptians, who called
it the land of Pun. … Conquered during the minority of
Thothmes III., and the regency of the Princess Hatasu, Yemen
appears to have been lost by the Egyptians in the troublous
times at the close of the eighteenth dynasty. Ramses II.
recovered it almost immediately after he ascended the throne,
and it was not till the time of the effeminate kings of the
twentieth dynasty, that this splendid ornament of Egyptian
power was finally lost. … The conquest of the land of Pun
under Hatasu is related in the elegant bas-reliefs of the
temple of Deir-el-Bahari, at Thebes, published by M.
Duemichen. … The bas-reliefs of the temple of Deir-el-Bahari
afford undoubted proofs of the existence of commerce between
India and Yemen at the time of the Egyptian expedition under
Hatasu. It was this commerce, much more than the fertility of
its own soil and its natural productions, that made Southern
Arabia one of the richest countries in the world. … For a
long time it was carried on by land only, by means of caravans
crossing Arabia; for the navigation of the Red Sea, much more
difficult and dangerous than that of the Indian Ocean, was not
attempted till some centuries later. …
{122}
The caravans of myrrh, incense, and balm crossing Arabia
towards the land of Canaan are mentioned in the Bible, in the
history of Joseph, which belongs to a period very near to the
first establishment of the Canaanites in Syria. As soon as
commercial towns arose in Phœnicia, we find, as the prophet
Ezekiel said, 'The merchants of Sheba and Raamah, they were
thy merchants: they occupied in thy fairs with chief of all
spices, and with all precious stones and gold.' … A great
number of Phœnician merchants, attracted by this trade,
established themselves in Yemen, Hadramaut, Oman, and Bahrein.
Phœnician factories were also established at several places on
the Persian Gulf, amongst others in the islands of Tylos and
Arvad, formerly occupied by their ancestors. … This
commerce, extremely flourishing during the nineteenth dynasty,
seems, together with the Egyptian dominion in Yemen, to have
ceased under the feeble and inactive successors of Ramses III.
… Nearly two centuries passed away, when Hiram and Solomon
despatched vessels down the Red Sea. … The vessels of the
two monarchs were not content with doing merely what had once
before been done under the Egyptians of the nineteenth
dynasty, namely, fetching from the ports of Yemen the
merchandise collected there from India. They were much bolder,
and their enterprise was rewarded with success. Profiting by
the regularity of the monsoons, they fetched the products of
India at first hand, from the very place of their shipment in
the ports of the land of Ophir, or Abhira. These distant
voyages were repeated with success as long as Solomon reigned.
The vessels going to Ophir necessarily touched at the ports of
Yemen to take in provisions and await favourable winds. Thus
the renown of the two allied kings, particularly of the power
of Solomon, was spread in the land of the Adites. This was the
cause of the journey made by the queen of Sheba to Jerusalem
to see Solomon. … The sea voyages to Ophir, and even to
Yemen, ceased at the death of Solomon. The separation of the
ten tribes, and the revolutions that simultaneously took place
at Tyre, rendered any such expeditions impracticable. … The
empire of the second Adites lasted ten centuries, during which
the Joktanite tribes, multiplying in each generation, lived
amongst the Cushite Sabæans. … The assimilation of the
Joktanites to the Cushites was so complete that the revolution
which gave political supremacy to the descendants of Joktan
over those of Cush produced no sensible change in the
civilisation of Yemen. But although using the same language,
the two elements of the population of Southern Arabia were
still quite distinct from each other, and antagonistic in
their interests. … Both were called Sabæans, but the Bible
always carefully distinguishes them by a different
orthography. … The majority of the Sabæan Cushites, however,
especially the superior castes, refused to submit to the
Joktanite yoke. A separation, therefore, took place, giving
rise to the Arab proverb, 'divided as the Sabæans,' and the
mass of the Adites emigrated to another country. According to
M. Caussin de Perceval, the passage of the Sabæans into
Abyssinia is to be attributed to the consequences of the
revolution that established Joktanite supremacy in Yemen. …
The date of the passage of the Sabæans from Arabia into
Abyssinia is much more difficult to prove than the fact of
their having done so. … Yarub, the conqueror of the Adites,
and founder of the new monarchy of Joktanite Arabs, was
succeeded on the throne by his son, Yashdjob, a weak and
feeble prince, of whom nothing is recorded, but that he
allowed the chiefs of the various provinces of his states to
make themselves independent. Abd Shems, surnamed Sheba, son of
Yashdjob, recovered the power his predecessors had lost. …
Abd Shems had several children, the most celebrated being
Himyer and Kahlan, who left a numerous posterity. From these
two personages were descended the greater part of the Yemenite
tribes, who still existed at the time of the rise of Islamism.
The Himyarites seem to have settled in the towns, whilst the
Kahlanites inhabited the country and the deserts of Yemen. …
This is the substance of all the information given by the Arab
historians."

_F. Lenormant and E. Chevalier,
Manual of Ancient History of the East,
book 7, chapters 1-2 (volume 2)._

ARABIA:
Sabæans, The.

"For some time past it has been known that the Himyaritic
inscriptions fall into two groups, distinguished from one
another by phonological and grammatical differences. One of
the dialects is philologically older than the other,
containing fuller and more primitive grammatical forms. The
inscriptions in this dialect belong to a kingdom the capital
of which was at Ma'in, and which represents the country of the
Minæans of the ancients. The inscriptions in the other dialect
were engraved by the princes and people of Sabâ, the Sheba of
the Old Testament, the Sabæans of classical geography. The
Sabæan kingdom lasted to the time of Mohammed, when it was
destroyed by the advancing forces of Islam. Its rulers for
several generations had been converts to Judaism, and had been
engaged in almost constant warfare with the Ethiopic kingdom
of Axum, which was backed by the influence and subsidies of
Rome and Byzantium. Dr. Glaser seeks to show that the founders
of this Ethiopic kingdom were the Habâsa, or Abyssinians, who
migrated from Himyar to Africa in the second or first century
B. C.; when we first hear of them in the inscriptions they are
still the inhabitants of Northern Yemen and Mahrah. More than
once the Axumites made themselves masters of Southern Arabia.
About A. D. 300, they occupied its ports and islands, and from
350 to 378 even the Sabæan kingdom was tributary to them.
Their last successes were gained in 525, when, with Byzantine
help, they conquered the whole of Yemen. But the Sabæan
kingdom, in spite of its temporary subjection to Ethiopia, had
long been a formidable State. Jewish colonies settled in it,
and one of its princes became a convert to the Jewish faith.
His successors gradually extended their dominion as far as
Ormuz, and after the successful revolt from Axum in 378,
brought not only the whole of the southern coast under their
sway, but the western coast as well, as far north as Mekka.
Jewish influence made itself felt in the future birthplace of
Mohammed, and thus introduced those ideas and beliefs which
subsequently had so profound an effect upon the birth of
Islam. The Byzantines and Axumites endeavoured to counteract
the influence of Judaism by means of Christian colonies and
proselytism. The result was a conflict between Sabâ and its
assailants, which took the form of a conflict between the
members of the two religions.
{123}
A violent persecution was directed against the Christians of
Yemen, avenged by the Ethiopian conquest of the country and
the removal of its capital to San'a. The intervention of
Persia in the struggle was soon followed by the appearance of
Mohammedanism upon the scene, and Jew, Christian, and Parsi
were alike overwhelmed by the flowing tide of the new creed.
The epigraphic evidence makes it clear that the origin of the
kingdom of Sabâ went back to a distant date. Dr. Glaser traces
its history from the time when its princes were still but
Makârib, or 'Priests,' like Jethro, the Priest of Midian,
through the ages when they were 'kings of Sabâ,' and later
still 'kings of Sabâ and Raidân,' to the days when they
claimed imperial supremacy over all the principalities of
Southern Arabia. It was in this later period that they dated
their inscriptions by an era, which, as Halévy first
discovered, corresponds to 115 B. C. One of the kings of Sabâ
is mentioned in an inscription of the Assyrian king Sargon (B.
C. 715), and Dr. Glaser believes that he has found his name in
a 'Himyaritic' text. When the last priest, Samah'ali Darrahh,
became king of Sabâ, we do not yet know, but the age must be
sufficiently remote, if the kingdom of Sabâ already existed
when the Queen of Sheba came from Ophir to visit Solomon. The
visit need no longer cause astonishment, notwithstanding the
long journey by land which lay between Palestine and the south
of Arabia. … As we have seen, the inscriptions of Ma'in set
before us a dialect of more primitive character than that of
Sabâ. Hitherto it had been supposed, however, that the two
dialects were spoken contemporaneously, and that the Minæan
and Sabæan kingdoms existed side by side. But geography
offered difficulties in the way of such a belief, since the
seats of Minæan power were embedded in the midst of the Sabæan
kingdom, much as the fragments of Cromarty are embedded in the
midst of other counties. Dr. Glaser has now made it clear that
the old supposition was incorrect, and that the Minæan kingdom
preceded the rise of Sabâ. We can now understand why it is
that neither in the Old Testament nor in the Assyrian
inscriptions do we hear of any princes of Ma'in, and that
though the classical writers are acquainted with the Minæan
people they know nothing of a Minæan kingdom. The Minæan
kingdom, in fact, with its culture and monuments, the relics
of which still survive, must have flourished in the grey dawn
of history, at an epoch at which, as we have hitherto
imagined, Arabia was the home only of nomad barbarism. And yet
in this remote age alphabetic writing was already known and
practised, the alphabet being a modification of the Phœnician
written vertically and not horizontally. To what an early date
are we referred for the origin of the Phœnician alphabet
itself! The Minæan Kingdom must have had a long existence. The
names of thirty-three of its kings are already known to us.
… A power which reached to the borders of Palestine must
necessarily have come into contact with the great monarchies
of the ancient world. The army of Ælius Gallus was doubtless
not the first which had sought to gain possession of the
cities and spice-gardens of the south. One such invasion is
alluded to in an inscription which was copied by M. Halévy.
… But the epigraphy of ancient Arabia is still in its
infancy. The inscriptions already known to us represent but a
small proportion of those that are yet to be discovered. …
The dark past of the Arabian peninsula has been suddenly
lighted up, and we find that long before the days of Mohammed
it was a land of culture and literature, a seat of powerful
kingdoms and wealthy commerce, which cannot fail to have
exercised an influence upon the general history of the world."

_A. H. Sayce,
Ancient Arabia
(Contemporary Review, December, 1889)._

ARABIA: 6th Century.
Partial conquest by the Abyssinians.

See ABYSSINIA: 6TH TO 16TH CENTURIES.

ARABIA: A. D. 609-632.
Mahomet's conquest.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 609-632.

ARABIA: A. D. 1517.
Brought under the Turkish sovereignty.

See TURKS: A. D. 1481-1520.

----------ARABIA: End----------

ARABS, Conquests of the.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST.

ARACAN, English acquisition of.

See INDIA: A. D. 1823-1833.

ARACHOTI, The.

A people who dwelt anciently in the Valley of the Arghandab,
or Urgundab, in eastern Afghanistan. Herodotus gave them the
tribal name of "Pactyes," and the modern Afghans, who call
themselves "Pashtun" and "Pakhtun," signifying "mountaineers,"
are probably derived from them.

_M. Duncker,
History of Antiquity,
book 7, chapter 1._

ARAGON: A. D. 1035-1258.
Rise of the kingdom.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1035-1258.

ARAGON: A. D. 1133.
Beginning of popular representation in the Cortes.
The Monarchical constitution.

See CORTES, THE EARLY SPANISH.

ARAGON: A. D. 1218-1238.
The first oath of allegiance to the king.
Conquest of Balearic Islands.
Subjugation of Valencia.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1212-1238.

ARAGON: A. D. 1410-1475.
The Castilian dynasty.
Marriage of Ferdinand with Isabella of Castile.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1368-1479.

ARAGON: A. D. 1516.
The crown united with that of Castile by Joanna,
mother of Charles V.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1496-1517.

----------ARAGON: End----------

ARAICU, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.

ARAM. ARAM NAHARAIM. ARAM. ZOBAH. ARAMÆANS.

See SEMITES;
also, SEMITIC LANGUAGES.

ARAMBEC.

See NORUMBEGA.

ARAPAHOES, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY,
and PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.

ARAR, The.
The ancient name of the river Saone, in France.

ARARAT. URARDA.

See ALARODIANS.

ARATOS, and the Achaian League.

See GREECE: B. C. 280-146.

ARAUCANIANS, The.

See CHILE.

ARAUSIO.

A Roman colony was founded by Augustus at Arausio, which is
represented in name and site by the modern town of Orange, in
the department of Vaucluse, France, 18 miles north of Avignon.

_P. Goodwin,
History of France: Ancient Gaul,
book 2, chapter 5._

ARAUSIO, Battle of (B. C. 105).

See CIMBRI AND TEUTONES: B. C. 113-102.

{124}

ARAVISCI AND OSI, The.

"Whether … the Aravisci migrated into Pannonia from the Osi,
a German race, or whether the Osi came from the Aravisci into
Germany, as both nations still retain the same language,
institutions and customs, is a doubtful matter."—"The
locality of the Aravisci was the extreme north-eastern part of
the province of Pannonia, and would thus stretch from Vienna
(Vindobona), eastwards to Raab (Arrabo), taking in a portion
of the south-west of Hungary. … The Osi seem to have dwelt
near the sources of the Oder and the Vistula. They would thus
have occupied a part of Gallicia."

_Tacitus,
Germany,
translated by Church and Brodribb,
with geographical notes._

ARAWAKS, OR ARAUACAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: CARIBS.

ARAXES, The.

This name seems to have been applied to a number of Asiatic
streams in ancient times, but is connected most prominently
with an Armenian river, now called the Aras, which flows into
the Caspian.

ARBAS, Battle of.

One of the battles of the Romans with the Persians in which
the former suffered defeat. Fought A. D. 581.

_G. Rawlinson,
Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy,
chapter 22._

ARBELA, or GAUGAMELA, Battle of (B. C. 331).

See MACEDONIA: B. C. 334-330.

ARCADIA.

The central district of Peloponnesus, the great southern
peninsula of Greece—a district surrounded by a singular
mountain circle. "From the circle of mountains which has been
pointed out, all the rivers of any note take their rise, and
from it all the mountainous ranges diverge, which form the
many headlands and points of Peloponnesus. The interior part
of the country, however, has only one opening towards the
western sea, through which all its waters flow united in the
Alpheus. The peculiar character of this inland tract is also
increased by the circumstance of its being intersected by some
lower secondary chains of hills, which compel the waters of
the valleys nearest to the great chains either to form lakes,
or to seek a vent by subterraneous passages. Hence it is that
in the mountainous district in the northeast of Peloponnesus
many streams disappear and again emerge from the earth. This
region is Arcadia; a country consisting of ridges of hills and
elevated plains, and of deep and narrow valleys, with streams
flowing through channels formed by precipitous rocks; a
country so manifestly separated by nature from the rest of
Peloponnesus that, although not politically united, it was
always considered in the light of a single community. Its
climate was extremely cold; the atmosphere dense, particularly
in the mountains to the north; the effect which this had on
the character and dispositions of the inhabitants has been
described in a masterly manner by Polybius, himself a native
of Arcadia."

_C. O. Müller,
History and Antiquity of the Doric Race,
book 1, chapter 4._

"The later Roman poets were wont to speak of Arcadia as a
smiling land, where grassy vales, watered by gentle and
pellucid streams, were inhabited by a race of primitive and
picturesque shepherds and shepherdesses, who divided their
time between tending their flocks and making love to one
another in the most tender and romantic fashion. This idyllic
conception of the country and the people is not to be traced
in the old Hellenic poets, who were better acquainted with the
actual facts of the case. The Arcadians were sufficiently
primitive, but there was very little that was graceful or
picturesque about their land or their lives."

_C. H. Hanson,
The Land of Greece,
pages 381-382._

ARCADIA: B. C. 371-362.
The union of Arcadian towns.
Restoration of Mantineia.
Building of Megalopolis.
Alliance with Thebes.
Wars with Sparta and Elis.
Disunion.
Battle of Mantineia.

See GREECE: B. C. 371, and 371-362.

ARCADIA: B. C. 338.
Territories restored by Philip of Macedon.

See GREECE: B. C. 357-336.

ARCADIA: B. C. 243-146.
In the Achaian League.

See GREECE: B. C. 280-146.

----------ARCADIA: End----------

ARCADIUS, Roman Emperor (Eastern), A. D. 395-408.

ARCHIPELAGO, The Dukes of the.

See NAXOS: THE MEDIÆVAL DUKEDOM.

ARCHON.

See ATHENS: FROM THE DORIAN MIGRATION TO B. C. 683.

ARCIS-SUR-AUBE, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (JANUARY-MARCH).

ARCOLA, Battle of (1796).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1796-1797 (OCTOBER-APRIL).

ARCOT: A. D. 1751.
Capture and defence by Clive.

See INDIA: A. D. 1743-1752.

ARCOT: A. D. 1780.
Siege and capture by Hyder Ali.

See INDIA: A. D. 1780-1783.

----------ARCOT: End----------

ARDEN, Forest of.

The largest forest in early Britain, which covered the greater
part of modern Warwickshire and "of which Shakespeare's Arden
became the dwindled representative."

_J. R. Green,
The Making of England,
chapter 7._

ARDENNES, Forest of.

"In Cæsar's time there were in [Gaul] very extensive forests,
the largest of which was the Arduenna (Ardennes), which
extended from the banks of the lower Rhine probably as far as
the shores of the North Sea."

_G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 3, chapter 22._

"Ardennes is the name of one of the northern French
departments which contains a part of the forest Ardennes.
Another part is in Luxemburg and Belgium. The old Celtic name
exists in England in the Arden of Warwickshire."

_G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 4, chapter 14._

ARDRI, OR ARDRIGH, The.

See TUATH.

ARDSHIR, OR ARTAXERXES,
Founding of the Sassanian monarchy by.

See PERSIA: B. C. 150-A. D. 226.

ARECOMICI, The.

See VOLCÆ.

ARECUNAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: CARIBS AND THEIR KINDRED.

AREIOS.

See ARIA.

ARELATE:
The ancient name of Arles.

The territory covered by the old kingdom of Arles is sometimes
called the Arelate.

See BURGUNDY: A. D. 1127-1378,
and SALYES.

ARENGO, The.

See SAN MARINO, THE REPUBLIC OF.

AREOPAGUS, The.

"Whoever [in ancient Athens] was suspected of having blood
upon his hands had to abstain from approaching the common
altars of the land. Accordingly, for the purpose of judgments
concerning the guilt of blood, choice had been made of the
barren, rocky height which lies opposite the ascent to the
citadel. It was dedicated to Ares, who was said to have been
the first who was ever judged here for the guilt of blood; and
to the Erinyes, the dark powers of the guilt-stained
conscience. Here, instead of a single judge, a college of
twelve men of proved integrity conducted the trial. If the
accused had an equal number of votes for and against him, he
was acquitted. The court on the hill of Ares is one of the
most ancient institutions of Athens, and none achieved for the
city an earlier or more widely-spread recognition."

_E. Curtius,
History of Greece,
book 2, chapter 2._

{125}

"The Areopagus, or, as it was interpreted by an ancient
legend, Mars' Hill, was an eminence on the western side of the
Acropolis, which from time immemorial had been the seat of a
highly revered court of criminal justice. It took cognizance
of charges of wilful murder, maiming, poisoning and arson. Its
forms and modes of proceeding were peculiarly rigid and
solemn. It was held in the open air, perhaps that the judges
might not be polluted by sitting under the same roof with the
criminals. … The venerable character of the court seems to
have determined Solon to apply it to another purpose; and,
without making any change in its original jurisdiction, to
erect it into a supreme council, invested with a
superintending and controlling authority, which extended over
every part of the social system. He constituted it the
guardian of the public morals and religion, to keep watch over
the education and conduct of the citizens, and to protect the
State from the disgrace or pollution of wantonness and
profaneness. He armed it with extraordinary powers of
interfering in pressing emergencies, to avert any sudden and
imminent danger which threatened the public safety. The nature
of its functions rendered it scarcely possible precisely to
define their limits; and Solon probably thought it best to let
them remain in that obscurity which magnifies whatever is
indistinct. … It was filled with Archons who had discharged
their office with approved fidelity, and they held their seats
for life."

_C. Thirlwall,
History of Greece,
volume 1, chapter 11._

These enlarged functions of the Areopagus were withdrawn from
it in the time of Pericles, through the agency of Ephialtes,
but were restored about B. C. 400, after the overthrow of the
Thirty.—"Some of the writers of antiquity ascribed the first
establishment of the senate of Areopagus to Solon. … But
there can be little doubt that this is a mistake, and that the
senate of Areopagus is a primordial institution of immemorial
antiquity, though its constitution as well as its functions
underwent many changes. It stood at first alone as a permanent
and collegiate authority, originally by the side of the kings
and afterwards by the side of the archons: it would then of
course be known by the title of The Boule,—the senate, or
council; its distinctive title 'senate of Areopagus,' borrowed
from the place where its sittings were held, would not be
bestowed until the formation by Solon of the second senate, or
council, from which there was need to discriminate it."

_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapter 10 (volume 3)._

See, also, ATHENS: B. C. 477-462, and 466-454.

ARETHUSA, Fountain of.

See SYRACUSE.

AREVACÆ, The.

One of the tribes of the Celtiberians in ancient Spain. Their
chief town. Numantia, was the stronghold of Celtiberian
resistance to the Roman conquest.

See NUMANTIAN WAR.

ARGADEIS, The.

See PHYLÆ.

ARGAUM, Battle of (1803).

See INDIA: A. D. 1798-1805.

ARGENTARIA, Battle of (A. D.378).

See ALEMANNI: A. D. 378.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: Aboriginal inhabitants.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: TUPI. GUARANI.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1515-1557.
Discovery, exploration and early settlement on La Plata.
First founding of Buenos Ayres.

See PARAGUAY: A. D. 1515-1557.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1580-1777.
The final founding of the City of Buenos Ayres.
Conflicts of Spain and Portugal on the Plata.
Creation of the Viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres.

"In the year 1580 the foundations of a lasting city were laid
at Buenos Ayres by De Garay on the same situation as had twice
previously been chosen—namely, by Mendoza, and by Cabeza de
Vaca, respectively. The same leader had before this founded
the settlement of Sante Fe on the Paraná. The site selected
for the future capital of the Pampas is probably one of the
worst ever chosen for a city … has probably the worst
harbour in the world for a large commercial town. …
Notwithstanding the inconvenience of its harbour, Buenos Ayres
soon became the chief commercial entrepôt of the Valley of the
Plata. The settlement was not effected without some severe
fighting between De Garay's force and the Querandies. The
latter, however, were effectually quelled. … The Spaniards
were now nominally masters of the Rio de La Plata, but they
had still to apprehend hostilities on the part of the natives
between their few and far-distant settlements [concerning
which see PARAGUAY: A. D. 1515-1557]. Of this liability De
Garay himself was to form a lamentable example. On his passage
back to Asuncion, having incautiously landed to sleep near the
ruins of the old fort of San Espiritu, he was surprised by a
party of natives and murdered, with all his companions. The
death of this brave Biscayan was mourned as a great loss by
the entire colony. The importance of the cities founded by him
was soon apparent; and in 1620 all the settlements south of
the confluence of the rivers Parana and Paraguay were formed
into a separate, independent government, under the name of Rio
de La Plata, of which Buenos Ayres was declared the capital.
This city likewise became the seat of a bishopric. … The
merchants of Seville, who had obtained a monopoly of the
supply of Mexico and Peru, regarded with much jealousy the
prospect of a new opening for the South American trade by way
of La Plata," and procured restrictions upon it which were
relaxed in 1618 so far as to permit the sending of two vessels
of 100 tons each every year to Spain, but subject to a duty of
50 per cent. "Under this miserable commercial legislation
Buenos Ayres continued to languish for the first century of
its existence. In 1715, after the treaty of Utrecht, the
English … obtained the 'asiento' or contract for supplying
Spanish colonies in America with African slaves, in virtue of
which they had permission to form an establishment at Buenos
Ayres, and to send thither annually four ships with 1,200
negroes, the value of which they might export in produce of
the country. They were strictly forbidden to introduce other
goods than those necessary for their own establishments; but
under the temptation of gain on the one side and of demand on
the other, the asiento ships naturally became the means of
transacting a considerable contraband trade. …
{126}
The English were not the only smugglers in the river Plate. By
the treaty of Utrecht, the Portuguese had obtained the
important settlement of Colonia [the first settlement of the
Banda Oriental—or 'Eastern Border'—afterwards called
Uruguay] directly facing Buenos Ayres. … The Portuguese, …
not contented with the possession of Colonia … commenced a
more important settlement near Monte Video. From this place
they were dislodged by Zavala [Governor of Buenos Ayres], who,
by order of his government, proceeded to establish settlements
at that place and at Maldonado. Under the above-detailed
circumstances of contention … was founded the healthy and
agreeable city of Monte Video. … The inevitable consequence
of this state of things was fresh antagonism between the two
countries, which it was sought to put an end to by a treaty
between the two nations concluded in 1750. One of the articles
stipulated that Portugal should cede to Spain all of her
establishments on the eastern bank of the Plata; in return for
which she was to receive the seven missionary towns [known as
the 'Seven Reductions'] on the Uruguay. But … the
inhabitants of the Missions naturally rebelled against the
idea of being handed over to a people known to them only by
their slave-dealing atrocities. … The result was that when
2,000 natives had been slaughtered [in the war known as the
War of the Seven Reductions] and their settlements reduced to
ruins, the Portuguese repudiated the compact, as they could no
longer receive their equivalent, and they still therefore
retained Colonia. When hostilities were renewed in 1762, the
governor of Buenos Ayres succeeded in possessing himself of
Colonia; but in the following year it was restored to the
Portuguese, who continued in possession until 1777, when it
was definitely ceded to Spain. The continual encroachments of
the Portuguese in the Rio de La Plata, and the impunity with
which the contraband trade was carried on, together with the
questions to which it constantly gave rise with foreign
governments, had long shown the necessity for a change in the
government of that colony; for it was still under the
superintendence of the Viceroy of Peru, residing at Lima,
3,000 miles distant. The Spanish authorities accordingly
resolved to give fresh force to their representatives in the
Rio de La Plata; and in 1776 they took the important
resolution to sever the connection between the provinces of La
Plata and the Viceroyalty of Peru. The former were now erected
into a new Viceroyalty, the capital of which was Buenos Ayres.
… To this Viceroyalty was appointed Don Pedro Cevallos, a
former governor of Buenos Ayres. … The first act of Cevallos
was to take possession of the island of St. Katherine, the
most important Portuguese possession on the coast of Brazil.
Proceeding thence to the Plate, he razed the fortifications of
Colonia to the ground, and drove the Portuguese from the
neighbourhood. In October of the following year, 1777, a
treaty of peace was signed at St. Ildefonso, between Queen
Maria of Portugal and Charles III. of Spain, by virtue of
which St. Katherine's was restored to the latter country,
whilst Portugal withdrew from the Banda Oriental or Uruguay,
and relinquished all pretensions to the right of navigating
the Rio de La Plata and its affluents beyond its own frontier
line. … The Viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres was sub-divided into
the provinces of—(1.) Buenos Ayres, the capital of which was
the city of that name, and which comprised the Spanish
possessions that now form the Republic of Uruguay, as well as
the Argentine provinces of Buenos Ayres, Santa Fé, Entre Rios,
and Corrientes; (2.) Paraguay, the capital of which was
Asuncion, and which comprised what is now the Republic of
Paraguay; (3.) Tucuman, the capital of which was St. Iago del
Estero, and which included what are to-day the Argentine
provinces of Cordova, Tucuman, St. Iago, Salta, Catamarca,
Rioja, and Jujuy; (4.) Las Charcas or Potosi, the capital of
which was La Plata, and which now forms the Republic of
Bolivia; and (5.) Chiquito or Cuyo, the capital of which was
Mendoza, and in which were comprehended the present Argentine
provinces of St. Luiz, Mendoza, and St. Juan."

_R. G. Watson,
Spanish and Portuguese South America,
volumes 13-14._

ALSO IN:
_E. J. Payne,
History of European Colonies,
chapter 17._

_S. H. Wilcocke,
History of the Viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres._

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1806-1820.
The English invasion.
The Revolution.
Independence achieved.
Confederation of the Provinces of the Plate River and its
dissolution.