Chapter DXXII: Section 63: of this latter act reads: 'For all purposes (1)

connected with and having reference to the right to vote at
municipal elections, words importing in this act the masculine
gender include women.' This clause gave women the ballot in
the municipal boroughs, but did not make them eligible to
office. And as the general qualification for municipal
suffrage is the occupancy by the elector in his own name of a
house subject to the poor tax, the law includes independent
women only, not married women. … When in 1881 the municipal
suffrage was extended to women in Scotland, the question
whether the separated woman could vote was decided in her
favor. But of course this does not change the position of
married women in England. A year after the introduction of the
municipal suffrage of women they obtained (in 1870) the school
vote also, in connection with the establishment of the
existing system of primary instruction. … It still remained
for women to make their way into the local government of the
county; but county government, although representative, was
not elective. In 1888 county councils were established, chosen
by the ratepayers. The analogy of the municipal councils
demanded that women should be included among the electors of
the new local assemblies. Accordingly the Local Government Act
of 1888 admits women to the electorate in England, and the act
of 1889 gives them the same right in Scotland. … In Sweden
local self-government is exercised in first instance, in the
city and country communes, by the tax-payers in general
assembly, or town meeting, where their votes are reckoned in
proportion to the taxes paid, according to a graded scale,
just as in the English vestries. In the cities with a
population above 3,000 the taxpayers elect a communal council.
… In the full assemblies of the communes that have no
councils, and in the elections at which councillors are
chosen, unmarried women have the same right of participation
as men. … The next higher instance of local self-government
consists of provincial councils (landstings). All the
municipal electors, women not excepted, vote for the members
of these councils. … In Norway women have no share in local
government, except in the school administration. … In Denmark
women are entirely excluded from local government; but they
have been admitted to it in one Danish dependency—Iceland. …
Finland, which was attached to Sweden for centuries before it
fell under the sway of Russia, is still influenced by the
movement of legislation in the former mother-country. … The
law of February 6, 1865, concerning the rural communes,
admitted women to communal rights under almost the same
conditions as in Sweden. … The law of April 14, 1856,
concerning the organization of the rural communes in the six
eastern provinces of the kingdom of Prussia (section 6), as
well as the analogous law of March 19, 1856, for the province
of Westphalia (section 15), provide that persons of female sex
who possess real property carrying with it the right to vote
shall be represented—the married women by their husbands, the
single women by electors of the male sex. A similar provision
was adopted for the province of Schleswig-Holstein, after its
annexation by Prussia (law of September 22, 1867, section 11).
But in the Rhine province, where the administrative and the
private law still show deep traces of the French influence,
women are expressly excluded from the communal franchise. … In
Saxony women are admitted to the communal vote in the country
districts on the same terms as men. … Eligibility to communal
office is denied to women in all the countries enumerated
above. In Austria, as one consequence of the revolutionary
movement of 1848, the legislator endeavored to infuse fresh
life into the localities by giving a liberal organization to
the rural communes. The law of 1849 granted communal rights to
all persons paying taxes on realty and industrial enterprises,
and also to various classes of 'capacities'—ministers of
religion, university graduates, school principals and teachers
of the higher grades, etc.
{3660}
Among the electors of the first and most important group,
based wholly upon property, were included women, minors,
soldiers in active service and some other classes of persons
who, as a rule, were excluded from suffrage, on condition that
their votes be cast through representatives. … The Russian
village community, the mir, which has come down across the
centuries into our own time with very few changes in its
primitive organization, is a typical example of rudimentary
local self-government, where all who have an interest, not
excepting the women, have a right to be heard in the common
assemblies. … In the Dominion of Canada local suffrage has
only recently been granted to women. The first law regulating
this matter was passed in the province of Ontario (Upper
Canada) in 1884. This law has served as an example, and in
part also as a model, for the other provinces. The electoral
rights granted to women by the legislation of the province of
Ontario may be grouped under four heads:
(a) participation in municipal elections,
(b) participation in municipal referenda,
(c) participation in school-board elections, and
(d) eligibility to office.
All unmarried women and widows twenty-one years of age,
subjects of her Majesty and paying municipal taxes on real
property or income, may vote in municipal elections. …
Finally, all taxpayers resident in the school district are
recognized by the laws of 1885 and 1887 as eligible to the
office of school trustee. … Female suffrage does not exist in
the great French-speaking province of Quebec (Lower Canada),
in New Brunswick or in Prince Edward Island. … In almost all
the continental [Australasian] colonies the municipal suffrage
rests upon the same basis as does the parish franchise of the
mother-country, i. e. the possession or occupation of real
property. … [In the United States] several States have granted
to women simply the right of being elected to school offices,
provided always that they possess the qualifications
prescribed for men. The question is thus decided in
California, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Maine,
Pennsylvania and Rhode Island. … At the present time the
system of granting to women both rights—eligibility and
suffrage—in school matters has been adopted in the following
states besides Massachusetts: Colorado, North and South
Dakota, Idaho, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, New Hampshire,
New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Vermont, Washington and
Wisconsin and the territory of Arizona. Of course to this list
must be added Wyoming, where women vote at all elections, and
Kansas, where they possess complete local suffrage. Finally,
Kentucky and Nebraska admit women only to the school
franchise, and that only under special conditions."

_M. Ostrogorski,
Local Woman Suffrage
(Political Science Quarterly, December, 1891)._

"In three Territories … the right of voting at legislative
elections was given by the legislature of the Territory, and
in one of these, Wyoming, it was retained when the Territory
received Statehood in 1890. In Utah it was abolished by a
Federal statute, because thought to be exercised by the Mormon
wives at the bidding of their polygamous husbands, and thus to
strengthen the polygamic party. In Washington Territory the
law which conferred it in 1883 was declared invalid by the
courts in 1887, because its nature had not been properly
described in the title, was re-enacted immediately afterwards,
and was in 1888 again declared invalid by the United States
Territorial Court, on the ground that the Act of Congress
organizing the Territorial legislature did not empower it to
extend the suffrage to women. In enacting their State
Constitution (1889) the people of Washington pronounced
against female suffrage by a majority of two to one; and a
good authority declared to me that most of the women were well
pleased to lose the privilege. In 1893 the legislature of
Colorado submitted to the voters (in virtue of a provision in
the Constitution) a law extending full franchise for all
purposes to women, and it was carried by a majority of 6,347.
… In Michigan in 1893, women received the suffrage in all
municipal elections. In Michigan, however, the law has since
been declared unconstitutional. … In Connecticut, the latest
State which has extended school suffrage to women (1893), it
would appear that the women have not, so far, shown much
eagerness to be registered. However, while the advanced women
leaders and Prohibitionists started a campaign among the women
voters, the husbands and brothers of conservative proclivities
urged their wives and sisters to register, and not without
success. In Wyoming (while it was still a Territory) women
served as jurors for some months till the judges discovered
that they were not entitled by law to do so, and in Washington
(while a Territory) they served from 1884 to 1887, when the
legislature, in regranting the right of voting, omitted to
grant the duty or privilege of jury service. … As respects the
suffrage in Wyoming, the evidence I have collected privately
is conflicting. … No opposition was offered in the Convention
of 1889, which drafted the present Constitution, to the
enactment of woman suffrage for all purposes. The opinion of
the people at large was not duly ascertained, because the
question was not separately submitted to them at the polls,
but there can be little doubt that it would have been
favourable. … The whole proceedings of the Convention of 1889
leave the impression that the equal suffrage in force since
1869 had worked fairly, and the summing up of the case by a
thoughtful and dispassionate British observer (Mr. H.
Plunkett) is to the same effect."

_J. Bryce,
The American Commonwealth (3d edition),
chapter 96 (volume 2)._

"No complete and reliable statistics have ever been obtained
of the number of women who register and vote on school
questions. This varies greatly in different localities, and in
the same localities in different years. With women, as with
men, the questions connected with the schools do not suffice
to bring out many voters as a rule. Those few who have voted
hitherto have been of more than average character and ability,
and influenced wholly by public spirit. But comparatively few,
even of suffragists, have as yet availed themselves of the
privilege. To secure any general participation of women in
elections, a wider range of subjects must be thrown open to
them. Wherever, as in Kansas, party issues and moral questions
are involved, the women show a greater interest. In several
States, as in Kansas, Iowa, and Rhode Island, prohibition
amendments are said to have been carried by the efforts of
women-workers at the polls, although not themselves voters."

_The Nation,
April 28, 1887,
page 362._

{3661}

WOOL, General John E.: In the war of 1812.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1812 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER).

WOOD'S HALFPENCE.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1722-1724.

WOOLLY-HEADS, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1850.

WOOLSACK, The.

"Perhaps you have noticed, when paying a visit to the House of
Lords in holiday time, a comfortable kind of ottoman in front
of the throne. This is the Woolsack, the seat of the Lord
Chancellor [who presides in the House of Lords]. In the reign
of Elizabeth an Act of Parliament was passed to prevent the
exportation of wool, and to keep in mind this source of our
national wealth, woolsacks were placed in the House of Lords,
whereon the judges sat."

_A. C. Ewald,
The Crown and its Advisers,
lecture 3._

WORCESTER, Marquis of, The inventions of.

See STEAM ENGINE.

WORCESTER, Battle of.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1651 (AUGUST).

WORDE, Wynkyn de, The Press of.

See PRINTING &c.: A. D. 1476-1491.

WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, The.

See CHICAGO: A. D. 1892-1893.

[Transcriber's note]
See
_C. D. Arnold and H. D. Higinbotham,
Official Views Of The World's Columbian Exposition
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/22847_

WORLD'S FAIR, The First.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1851.

WORMS.

"Worms (Wormatia) (Borbetomagus), situated on the left bank of
the Rhine, existed long before the Roman conquest, and is
supposed to have been founded by the Celts, under the name of
Borbetomagus. … In the 4th and 5th centuries it was a
flourishing town in the possession of the Burgundians. Under
their King Gundahar, the vicinity of Worms was the scene of
the popular legend handed down in the romantic poem known as
the Nibelungen-lied. In 496, by the victory of Tolbiacum, it
formed a part of the empire of Clovis."

_W. J. Wyatt,
History of Prussia,
volume 2, page 447._

WORMS: A. D.406.
Destruction by the Germans.

See GAUL: A. D. 406-409.

WORMS: A. D. 1521.
The Imperial Diet.
Luther's summons and appearance.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1521-1522.

WORMS: A. D. 1713.
Taken by the French.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

WORMS: A. D. 1743.
Treaty between Austria, Sardinia and England.

See ITALY: A. D. 1743;
and AUSTRIA: A. D. 1743-1744.

WORMS: A. D. 1792.
Occupied by the French Revolutionary Army.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1792 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER).

WORMS, Concordat of(1122).

See PAPACY: A. D. 1056-1122.

WÖRTH, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870 (JULY-AUGUST).

WRANGLERS, Senior.

At Oxford and Cambridge Universities, "by a strange relic of
the logical and disputatory studies of the Middle Ages, the
candidates for University honors maintained in public some
mathematical thesis, about which they disputed in Latin,
never, as it may be supposed, of the best. To keep up the
illusion of the monkish time, and the seven liberal arts, a
little metaphysics and a good deal of theology were thrown in
at the time of the examination; but the real business of the
'schools' at Cambridge was mathematics. The disputing,
however, was so important a part of the performances that the
first division of those to whom were awarded honors were
called by distinction,'the wranglers'; and the head man—the
proud recipient of all the glory which at the end of a four
years' course the ancient University showered on the son she
possessed most distinguished in her favorite studies—was
called the senior wrangler. In process of time, the
disputations and Latin were all done away with. An examination
from printed papers was made the test. Yet, still, every year,
at the end of the arduous eight days' trial, the undergraduate
who takes his bachelor's degree in virtue of passing the best
examination in mathematics, is called the senior wrangler; and
attains the proudest position that Cambridge has to bestow."

_W. Everett,
On the Cam,
lecture 2._

WRIT OF HABEAS CORPUS. WRIT OF MAINPRISE. WRIT DE HOMINE REPLEGIANDO.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1679.

WRITS OF ASSISTANCE.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1761;
and MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1761.

WROXETER, Origin of.

See URICONIUM.

----------WÜRTEMBERG: Start--------

WÜRTEMBERG:
Early Suevic population.

See SUEVI.

WÜRTEMBERG: Founding of the Dukedom.

"Conrad of Beutelsbach, the first of this family that appears
upon record, got the County of Würtemberg from the Emperor
Henry IV. in 1103, and was succeeded by his son Ulrick I. as
Count of Würtemberg, in 1120. Henry, the fourteenth in lineal
descent from Ulrick, was made Duke of Würtemberg in 1519.
Frederick II., and eighth Duke of Würtemberg, succeeded his
father in 1797, and was proclaimed King of Würtemberg in
1805."

_Sir A. Halliday,
Annals of the House of Hanover,
volume 1, page 430._

WÜRTEMBERG: A. D. 1801-1803.
Acquisition of territory under the Treaty of Luneville.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1801-1803.

WÜRTEMBERG: A. D. 1805-1806.
Aggrandized by Napoleon.
Created a Kingdom.
Joined to the Confederation of the Rhine.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1805-1806; and 1806 (JANUARY-AUGUST).

WÜRTEMBERG: A. D. 1809.
Incorporation of the rights and revenues of the Teutonic
Order with the Kingdom.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).

WÜRTEMBERG: A. D. 1813.
Abandonment of the Rhenish Confederacy and the French Alliance.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (JANUARY-MARCH).

WÜRTEMBERG: A. D. 1816.
Accession to the Holy Alliance.

See HOLY ALLIANCE.

WÜRTEMBERG: A. D. 1866.
The Seven Weeks War.
Indemnity to Prussia.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1866.

WÜRTEMBERG: A. D. 1870-1871.
Treaty of union with the Germanic Confederation,
soon transformed into the German Empire.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1870 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER); and 1871.

----------WÜRTEMBERG: End--------

WÜRTZBURG, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1796 (APRIL-OCTOBER).

WUZEER, VIZIR.

See OUDE; and VIZIR.

WYANDOT CONSTITUTION, The.

See KANSAS: A. D. 1854-1859.

WYANDOTS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: HURONS OR WYANDOTS.

{3662}

WYAT'S INSURRECTION.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1554.

WYCLIF'S REFORMATION.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1360-1414;
BOHEMIA: A. D. 1405-1415,
and BEGUINES.

WYOMING:
The Name.

"Wyoming is a corruption of the name given to the locality by
the Indians. They called it 'Maughwauwame.' The word is
compounded of 'maughwau,' large, and 'wame,' plains. The name,
then, signifies 'The Large Plains.' The Delawares pronounced
the first syllable short, and the German missionaries, in
order to come as near as possible to the Indian pronunciation
wrote the name M'chweuwami. The early settlers, finding it
difficult to pronounce the word correctly, spoke it Wauwaumie,
then Wiawumie, then Wiomic, and, finally, Wyoming,"

_G. Peck,
Wyoming: Its History &c.,
chapter 1._

WYOMING (State): A. D. 1803.
Eastern portion embraced in the Louisiana Purchase.

See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1798-1803.

WYOMING (State): A. D. 1890.
Admission to the Union as a State.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: 1889-1890.

WYOMING (Valley): A. D. 1753-1799.
Connecticut claims and settlements.
The Pennamite and Yankee War.

See PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1753-1799.

WYOMING (Valley): A. D. 1755.
The Grasshopper War of the Delaware and Shawanese tribes
of American Indians.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SHAWANESE.

WYOMING (Valley): A. D. 1778.
The Tory and Indian invasion and massacre.
Its misrepresentation by historians and poets.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1778 (JULY).

X.

X, Y, Z, CORRESPONDENCE, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1797-1799.

XENOPHON'S RETREAT.

See PERSIA: B. C. 401-400.

XERES DE LA FRONTERA, Battle of (A. D. 711).

See SPAIN: A. D. 711-713.

XERXES.

See PERSIA: B. C, 486-405,
and GREECE: B. C. 480-479.

Y.

YAKOOB BEG, The Dominion of.

The Chinese obtained possession of Kashgar or Chinese
Turkestan (see TURKESTAN) about 1760, and held it for a
century, overcoming much revolt during the last forty years of
that period. In 1862, the revolt assumed a more formidable
character than it had borne before. Its beginning was among a
neighboring people called, variously, the Tungani, Dungani, or
Dungans. These were "a Mahomedan people settled in the
north-west province of Kansuh and in a portion of Shensi. Many
of them had migrated westward at the time of the wars of Keen
Lung, and had colonized various parts of the Chinese
conquests. During a century this movement westward had
continued, and in 1862 the Tungani represented the majority of
the population, not only in parts of Kansuh, but also in the
country to the west, as far as Ili and the city of Turfan.
Although Mahomedans, they had acted as the soldiers of the
Chinese. They had won their battles, laid down their roads,
and held the Tartar population in check. From the Tungani the
Chinese never for an instant expected danger. They were
certainly heretics; but then they were part and parcel of
themselves in every other respect. They hated the Khokandians
and the people of Kashgar with a hatred that was more bitter
than that they bore to the Khitay or Buddhist Chinese. In all
essentials the Tungani were treated exactly like the most
favoured children of the empire. … The only cause that it is
possible to assign for their rebellion is that vague one of
the religious revival which was then manifesting itself among
the Mahomedans all over the world. But whatever the cause, the
consequences were clear enough. In 1862 a riot occurred at a
village in Kansuh. Order was restored with some small loss of
life; and the momentary alarm which had been caused by it
passed away. The alarm was, however, only too well founded. A
few weeks afterwards a more serious riot took place at the
town of Houchow or Salara. This was the signal for the rising
of the Tungani in all directions. The unanimity shown by the
various Tungani settlements proved that there had been a
preconcerted arrangement amongst them; but the Chinese had
known nothing of it. … The few Imperial troops remaining in
the province of Kansuh were unable to withstand the desperate
and unanimous assault of the Mahomedans. They were swept out
of existence, and with them the larger portion of the Khitay
population as well. The Mahomedan priests took the lead in
this revolt, and the atrocities which they and their followers
enacted were of the most horrible and blood-thirsty character.
The butchery of tens of thousands of their Buddhist subjects
in Kansuh appealed loudly to the Chinese Government for
revenge; and it was not long before their troops restored
Kansuh to its allegiance. Those of the Tungani who were
captured were given over to the executioner. But a large
number escaped, fleeing westward to those cities beyond the
desert, where other Mussulmans had imitated, with like
success, the deeds of their kinsmen in Kansuh. … No sooner
then did the tidings of the events in Kansuh reach Hamil and
Barkul, Turfan and Manas, than risings at once took place
against the Khitay. In all cases the movement was successful.
The Manchus were deposed: the 'mollahs' were set up in their
stead. After a short interval the other cities of Karashar,
Kucha, and Aksu, followed the example, with an identical
result. The Tungan revolt proper had then reached its limit. …
The communications between Pekin and Jungaria were cut, and a
hostile territory of nearly 2,000 miles intervened. To restore
those communications, to reduce that hostile country, would
demand a war of several campaigns; and China was not in a
condition to make the slightest effort. All that her statesmen
could hope for was, that she would not go irretrievably to
pieces.
{3663}
The Tungani flourished on the misfortunes of the empire. …
During some months after the first successes of the Tungani,
the people of Kuldja and Kashgaria remained quiet, for the
prestige of China's power was still great. But when it became
evident to all, that communication was hopelessly cut off
between the Chinese garrisons and the base of their strength
in China, both the Tungan element and the native population
began to see that their masters were ill able to hold their
own against a popular rising. This opinion gained ground
daily, and at last the whole population rose against the
Chinese and massacred them. … But no sooner had the Chinese
been overthrown, than the victors, the Tungani and the
Tarantchis, began to quarrel with each other. Up to the month
of January, 1865, the rising had been carried out in a very
irregular and indefinite manner. … It was essentially a blind
and reckless rising, urged on by religious antipathy; and,
successful as it was, it owed all its triumphs to the
embarrassments of China. The misfortunes of the Chinese
attracted the attention of all those who felt an interest in
the progress of events in Kashgaria. Prominent among these was
a brother of Wali Khan, Buzurg Khan [heir of the former
rulers, the exiled Khojas], who resolved to avail himself of
the opportunity afforded by the civil war for making a bold
attempt to regain the place of his ancestors. Among his
followers was Mahomed Yakoob, a Khokandian soldier of fortune,
already known to fame in the desultory wars and feuds of which
Central Asia had been the arena. His previous career had
marked him out pre-eminently as a leader of men, and he now
sought in Eastern Turkestan that sphere of which Russian
conquests had deprived him in its Western region. There is
little to surprise us in the fact that, having won his
battles, Yakoob deposed and imprisoned his master Buzurg. In
several campaigns between 1867 and 1873 he bent back the
Tungani from his confines, and established an independent
government in the vast region from the Pamir to beyond Turfan,
and from Khoten and the Karakoram to the Tian Shan. He treated
on terms of dignity with the Czar, and also with the
Government of India. He received English envoys and Russian
ambassadors, and his palace was filled with presents from
London and St. Petersburg. … Urged on by some vague ambition,
he made war upon the Tungani, when every dictate of prudence
pointed to an alliance with them. He destroyed his only
possible allies, and in destroying them he weakened himself
both directly and indirectly. In the autumn of 1876 Yakoob Beg
had indeed pushed forward so far to the east that he fancied
he held Barkul and Hamil in his grasp; and the next spring
would probably have witnessed a further advance upon these
cities had not fate willed it otherwise. With the capture of
the small village of Chightam, in 92° E. longitude, Yakoob's
triumphs closed. Thus far his career had been successful; it
may then be said to have reached its limit. In the autumn of
1876, the arrival of a Chinese army on his eastern frontier
changed the current of his thoughts. … From November, 1876,
until March, 1877, the Chinese generals were engaged in
massing their troops on the northern side of the Tian Shan
range. … Yakoob's principal object was to defend the Devan
pass against the Chinese; but, while they attacked it in
front, another army under General Chang Yao was approaching
from Hamil. Thus outflanked, Yakoob's army retreated
precipitately upon Turfan, where he was defeated, and again a
second time at Toksoun, west of that town. The Chinese then
halted. They had, practically speaking, destroyed Yakoob's
powers of defence. That prince retreated to the town of Korla,
where he was either assassinated or poisoned early in the
month of May. … Korla was occupied on the 9th of October
without resistance; and towards the end of the same month,
Kucha, once an important city, surrendered. The later stages
of the war were marked by the capture of the towns of Aksu,
Ush Turfan, and Kashgar. With the fall of the capital, on the
17th of December, 1877, the fighting ceased. The Chinese
authority was promptly established in the country as far south
as Yarkand, and after a brief interval in Khoten."

_D. C. Boulger,
Central Asian Questions,
chapter 12._

YALE COLLEGE.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: AMERICA: A. D. 1701-1717.

YAMASIS AND YAMACRAWS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.

YAMCO, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ANDESIANS.

YANACONAS. MAMACONAS.

"The Yanaconas were a class existing [in Peru] in the time of
the Incas, who were in an exceptional position. They were
domiciled in the houses of their masters, who found them in
food and clothing, paid their tribute, and gave them a piece
of land to cultivate in exchange for their services. But to
prevent this from degenerating into slavery, a decree of 1601
ordered that they should be free to leave their masters and
take service elsewhere on the same conditions." The Mamaconas
of Peru were a class of domestic servants.

_C. R. Markham,
Colonial History of South America,
(Narrative and Critical History of America,
volume 8, page 296)._

YANAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: YANAN FAMILY.

YANKEE:
Origin of the term.

"The first name given by the Indians to the Europeans who
landed in Virginia was 'Wapsid Lenape' (white people); when,
however, afterwards, they began to commit murders on the red
men, whom they pierced with swords, they gave to the
Virginians the name 'Mechanschican' (long knives), to
distinguish them from others of the same colour. In New
England they at first endeavoured to imitate the sound of the
national name of the English, which they pronounced
'Yengees.'" After about the middle of the Revolutionary War
the Indians applied the name "Yengees" exclusively to the
people of New England, "who, indeed, appeared to have adopted
it, and were, as they still are, generally through the country
called 'Yankees,' which is evidently the same name with a
trifling alteration. They say they know the 'Yengees,' and can
distinguish them by their dress and personal appearance, and
that they were considered as less cruel than the Virginians or
'long knives.' The proper English they [for 'they' read 'the
Chippeways and some other nations.'—Editor's foot-note] call
'Saggenash.'"

_J. Heckewelder,
History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations
(Pennsylvania Historical Society Memoirs, volume 12)
pages 142-143._

{3664}

"The origin of this term [Yankees]. so frequently employed by
way of reproach to the New England people, is said to be as
follows. A farmer, by name Jonathan Hastings, of Cambridge,
about the year 1713, used it as a cant, favorite word, to
express excellency when applied to any thing; as a Yankee good
horse, Yankee cider, &c., meaning an excellent horse and
excellent cider. The students at college, having frequent
intercourse with Mr. Hastings, and hearing him employ the term
on all occasions, adopted it themselves, and gave him the name
of Yankee Jonathan; this soon became a cant word among the
collegians to express a weak, simple, awkward person, and from
college it was carried and circulated through the country,
till, from its currency in New England, it was at length taken
up and unjustly applied to the New Englanders in common, as a
term of reproach: It was in consequence of this that a
particular song, called 'Yankee doodle,' was composed in
derision of those scornfully called Yankees."

_J. Thatcher,
Military Journal during the Revolutionary War,
page 19._

"Dr. William Gordon, in his History of the American War,
edition 1789, volume i., pages 324,325, says it was a
favourite cant word in Cambridge, Massachusets, as early as
1713, and that it meant 'excellent.' … Cf. Lowland Sc.
'yankie,' a sharp, clever, forward woman; 'yanker,' an agile
girl, an incessant speaker; 'yanker,' a smart stroke, a great
falsehood; 'yank,' a sudden and severe blow, a sharp stroke;
'yanking,' active, pushing (Jamieson). … If Dr. Gordon's view
be right, the word 'yankee' may be identified with the Sc.
'yankie,' as above; and all the Scotch words appear to be of
Scandinavian origin, due, ultimately Icel. 'jaga,' to move about. …
The fundamental idea is that of 'quick motion'; see 'yacht.'
But the word cannot be said to be solved."

_W. W. Skeat,
Etymological Dictionary._

"The best authorities on the subject now agree upon the
derivation of this term from the imperfect effort made by the
Northern Indians to pronounce the word 'English.'"

_M. Schele de Vere,
Americanisms,
page 22._

ALSO IN:
Notes and Queries,
series 1, volume 6, page 57.

YANKTONS. The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY.

YARD-LAND.

An ancient holding of land in England equivalent to the
virgate.

See HIDE OF LAND;
and MANORS.

YATASSEES. The.

See TEXAS: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

YEAR BOOKS, English.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1307-1509.

YEAR OF ANARCHY, The.

See ATHENS: B. C. 404-403.

YEAR OF METON, The.

See METON, THE YEAR OF.

YELLOW FEVER, Appearance of.

See PLAGUE: 18TH CENTURY.

YELLOW FORD, Battle of the (1598).

See IRELAND: A. D. 1559-1603.

YELLOW TAVERN, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (MAY: VIRGINIA) SHERIDAN'S RAID.

YELLOWS (of Venezuela) The.

See VENEZUELA: A. D. 1829-1886.

YEMAMA, Battle of.

See ACRABA.

YENIKALE, Attack on (1855).

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1854-1856.

YEOMEN.

"A 'yeoman' is defined by Sir Thomas Smith (Rep. Anglor. lib.
1. c. 24) as he whom our law calls 'legalem hominem,' a
free-born man that may dispend of his own free land in yearly
revenues to the sum of forty shillings. But it had also a more
general application, denoting like 'valet' a higher kind of
service, which still survives in the current phrase to do
'yeoman's service.' In the household of the mediæval knight or
baron the younger sons of yeomen would form a large proportion
of the servitors, and share with the younger sons of knight or
squire the common name of 'valetti.' The yeomen too who lived
on their own land, but wore the 'livery of company' of some
baron or lesser territorial magnate, would also be his
'valets.' The mediæval 'yeoman' was the tenant of land in free
socage. The extent of his holding might be large or small."

_T. P. Taswell-Langmead,
English Constitutional History,
page 343, foot-note._

"At the period when the higher gentry began to absorb what
remained of the feudal nobility, and established themselves
definitely as an upper class, the small landowners—freeholders
holding estates of inheritance or for life—long leaseholders
and the larger copyholders made corresponding progress, and
the yeomen (the common term applied to all of them) began in
their turn to fill the position and take the rank of an
agricultural middle class. The reign of Henry VI. had marked
the zenith of their influence; they had by that time fully
realized the fact of their existence as a body. The inferior
limit of their class was approximately determined by the
electoral qualification of the forty-shilling freeholder
(under the Act of 1430), or by the £4 qualification for the
office of juror. The superior limit was marked from a legal
point of view by the property qualification of a magistrate,
but socially there was not on this side any definite boundary
line. In 1446 it was considered necessary to forbid the county
electors to return 'valetti,' that is yeomen, to the House of
Commons, a proof that custom and opinion left to themselves
did not look upon the higher section of their class as
unworthy of a seat in Parliament, an honour originally
confined to the knights. Fortescue testifies almost with
triumph to the fact that in no country of Europe were yeomen
so numerous as in England."

_E. Boutmy,
The English Constitution,
part 2, chapter 4._

In later English use the word "yeoman" has signified "a man of
small estate in land, not ranking among the gentry."

YEOMEN OF THE GUARD.

"This corps was instituted by Henry VII. in 1485. It now
consists of 100 men, six of whom are called Yeomen Hangers,
and two Yeomen Bed-goers; the first attending to the hangings
and tapestries of the royal apartments, and the second taking
charge of all beds during any royal removals. The yeomen of
the guard carry up the royal dinner, and are popularly
designated as 'beef-eaters, 'respecting the origin of which
name some differences of opinion exist, for many maintain that
they never had any duties connected with the royal beaufet. A
yeoman usher and a party of yeomen attend in the great chamber
of the palace on drawing-room and levee days, to keep the
passage clear."

_C. R. Dodd,
Manual of Dignities,
part 2, section 1._

YERMOUK, Battle of (A. D. 636).

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 632-639.

YEZID I., Caliph, A. D. 679-683.

Yezid II., Caliph, 720-724.

Yezid III., Caliph, 744.

YNCAS, INCAS.

See PERU.

{3665}

YNGAVI, Battle of (1841).

See PERU: A. D. 1826-1876.

YORK: The Roman capital of Britain.

See EBORACUM.

YORK:
The capital of Deira and Northumbria.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 547-633.

YORK: A. D. 1189.
Massacre of Jews.

See JEWS: A. D. 1189.

YORK: A. D. 1644.

Parliamentary siege raised by Prince Rupert.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1644 (JANUARY-JULY).

YORK, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1777.
The American Congress in session.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1777 (JANUARY-DECEMBER).

YORKINOS, The.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1822-1828.

YORKISTS.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1455-1471.

YORKTOWN: A. D. 1781.
Surrender of Cornwallis and his army to Washington.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1781 (MAY-OCTOBER).

YORKTOWN: A. D. 1862.
McClellan's siege.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (MARCH-MAY: VIRGINIA).

YOUNG, Brigham, and the Mormons.

See MORMONISM: A. D. 1830-1846, 1846-1847;
and UTAH: A. D. 1849-1850, and 1857-1859.

YOUNG IRELAND MOVEMENT, The.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1841-1848.

YOUNG ITALY.

See ITALY: A. D. 1831-1848.

YPRES: A. D. 1383.
Unsuccessful but destructive siege by the English.

See FLANDERS: A. D. 1383.

YPRES: A. D. 1648.
Taken by the French.

See NETHERLANDS (SPANISH PROVINCES): A. D. 1647-1648.

YPRES: A. D.1659.
Restored to Spain.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1659-1661.

YPRES: A. D. 1679.
Ceded to France.

See NIMEGUEN, THE PEACE OF.

YPRES: A. D. 1713.
Ceded to Holland.

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1713-1715.

YPRES: A. D. 1744-1748.
Taken by the French and restored to Austria.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1743-1744;
and AIX-LA-CHAPELLE: THE CONGRESS.

YPRES: A. D. 1794.
Siege and capture by the French.

See FRANCE; A. D. 1794 (MARCH-JULY).

YUCATAN:
The aboriginal inhabitants, their civilization
and its monuments.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MAYAS, and QUICHES;
also MEXICO, ANCIENT.

YUCATAN:
Discovery.
Disputed origin of the name.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1517-1518.

YUCHI.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: UCHEAN FAMILY.

YUGUARZONGO, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ANDESIANS.

YUKIAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: YUKIAN FAMILY.

YUMAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: YUMAN FAMILY.

YUMAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: APACHE GROUP.

YUNCAS, The.

See PERU: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

YUNGAY, Battle of (1839).

See PERU: A. D. 1826-1876.

YUROKS, EUROCS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MODOCS.

Z.

ZAB, Battle of the (A. D. 750).

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 715-750.

ZACHARIAS, Pope, A. D. 741-752.

ZAGONARA, Battle of (1424).

See ITALY: A. D. 1412-1447.

ZAHARA: A. D. 1476.
Surprise, capture and massacre by the Moors.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1476-1492.

ZALACCA, Battle of (1086).

See ALMORAVIDES;
and PORTUGAL: EARLY HISTORY.

ZAMA, Battle of (B. C. 202).

See PUNIC WARS: THE SECOND.

ZAMBESIA.

See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1885-1893.

ZAMINDARS, OR ZEMINDARS.

See TALUKDARS;
also INDIA: A. D. 1785-1793.

ZAMZUMMITES, The.

See JEWS: EARLY HEBREW HISTORY.

ZANCLE.

See MESSENE IN SICILY, FOUNDING OF.

ZANZIBAR: A. D. 1885-1886.
Seizure of territory by Germany.

See AFRICA: A. D. 1884-1891.

ZAPORO, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ANDESIANS.

ZAPOTECS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ZAPOTECS, etc.

ZARA: A. D. 1203.
Capture and Destruction.

See CRUSADES: A. D. 1201-1203.

ZARAGOSSA.

See SARAGOSSA.

ZARAKA, The.

See SARANGIANS.

ZARANGIANS, The.

See SARANGIANS.

ZARATHUSTRA, ZOROASTER.

See ZOROASTRIANS.

ZEA.

See PIRÆUS.

ZEALOTS, The.

A party among the Jews which forced on the great struggle of
that people with the Roman power,—the struggle which ended in
the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. A party of ardent
patriots in its origin, and embracing the flower of the
nation, it degenerated, by enlistment of the passions of the
populace, into a fierce, violent, desperate faction, which
Ewald (History of Israel, book 7) compares to that of the
Jacobins of the French Revolution.

_Josephus,
The Jewish War._

ZEEWAND.

See WAMPUM.

ZEGRIS, The.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1238-1273; and 1476-1492.

ZELA, Battle of (B. C. 47).

See ROME: B. C. 47-46.

ZEMINDARS, ZAMINDARS.

See TALUKDARS;
also INDIA: A. D. 1785-1793.

{3666}

ZEMSTVO, The.

"The Zemstvo (in Russia] is a kind of local administration
which supplements the action of the rural communes [see MIR],
and takes cognizance of those higher public wants which
individual communes cannot possibly satisfy. Its principal
duties are to keep the roads and bridges in proper repair, to
provide means of conveyance for the rural police and other
officials, to elect the justices of peace, to look after
primary education and sanitary affairs, to watch the state of
the crops and take measures against approaching famine, and in
short to undertake, within certain clearly-defined limits,
whatever seems likely to increase the material and moral
well-being of the population. In form the institution is
parliamentary—that is to say, it consists of an assembly of
deputies which meets at least once a year, and of a permanent
executive bureau elected by the assembly from among its
members. … Once every three years the deputies are elected in
certain fixed proportions by the landed proprietors, the rural
communes, and the municipal corporations. Every province
(guberniya) and each of the districts (uyezdi) into which the
province is subdivided has such an assembly and such a
bureau."

_D. M. Wallace,
Russia,
chapter 14._

ZENDAVESTA, The.

See ZOROASTRIANS.

ZENDECAN, Battle of (1038).

See TURKS: A. D. 999-1183.

ZENGER'S TRIAL.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1720-1734.

ZENO, Roman Emperor (Eastern). A. D. 474-491.

ZENOBIA, The Empire of.

See PALMYRA.

ZENTA, Battle of (1697).

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1683-1699.

ZEPHATHAH, Battle of.

Fought by Asa, king of Judah, with Zerah the Ethiopian, whom
he defeated.

_2 Chronicles, xiv. 9-15._

ZEUGITÆ, The.

See ATHENS: B. C. 594.

ZEUGMA.

See APAMEA.

ZIELA, Battle of.

A battle fought in the Mithridatic War, B. C. 67, in which the
Romans were badly defeated by the Pontic king.

_T. Mommsen,
History of Rome,
book 5, chapter 2._

ZIGANI. ZIGEUNER. ZINCALI. ZINGARRI.

See GYPSIES.

ZINGIS KHAN, The conquests of.

See MONGOLS: A. D. 1153-1227;
and INDIA: A. D. 977-1290.

ZINGLINS.

See HAYTI: A. D. 1804-1880.

ZINZENDORF, Count, and the Moravian Brethren.

See MORAVIAN OR BOHEMIAN BRETHREN.

ZION.

See JERUSALEM: CONQUEST AND OCCUPATION BY DAVID.

ZNAIM, Armistice of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).

ZOAN. TANIS. SAN.

These are the names which, at different periods, have been
given to an ancient city near the northeastern borders of
Egypt, the ruins of which have been identified and are being
explored, on the east bank of the canal that was formerly the
Tanitic branch of the Nile. Both in Egyptian history and
Biblical history Zoan was an important place. "The whole
period of the Hebrew sojourn is closely interwoven with the
history of Zoan. Here ruled the king in whose name Egypt was
governed by the Hebrew, who was no less than regent; here
ruled those who still favoured the people of Israel. Under the
great Oppression, Zoan was a royal residence."

_R. S. Poole,
Cities of Egypt,
chapter 5._

ALSO IN:
_W. M. F. Petrie,
Tanis (2d Mem., Egypt Expl. Fund)._

See, also, JEWS: THE CHILDREN OF ISRAEL IN EGYPT.

ZOBAH, Kingdom of.

A kingdom of brief importance, extending from the Orontes to
the Euphrates, which appears among the allies of the
Ammonites, in their war with David King of Israel.

_H. Ewald,
Lectures on the History of Israel,
volume 3, pages 150-152._

ZOE AND THEODORA, Empresses in the East (Byzantine, or Greek). A. D. 1042.

ZOHAR, The.

See CABALA.

ZOHARITES, The.

A singular Jewish sect which sprang up in Poland during the
seventeenth century, taking its name from the Zohar, one of
the books of the Cabala, on which it founded its faith.

_H. H. Milman,
History of the Jews.
book 28._

ZOLLPARLAMENT, The.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1866-1870.

ZOLLVEREIN, The German.

See TARIFF LEGISLATION AND CONVENTIONS (GERMANY): A. D. 1833.
Also (in Supplement) GERMANY: A. D. 1815-1848.

ZOQUES, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ZAPOTECS. etc.

ZORNDORF, Battle or.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1758.

ZOROASTRIANS. MAGIANS. PARSEES.

"The Iranians were in ancient times the dominant race
throughout the entire tract lying between the Suliman
mountains and the Pamir steppe on the one hand, and the great
Mesopotamian valley on the other. … At a time which it is
difficult to date, but which those best skilled in Iranian
antiquities are inclined to place before the birth of Moses,
there grew up, in the region whereof we are speaking, a form
of religion marked by very special and unusual features. …
Ancient tradition associates this religion with the name of
Zoroaster. Zoroaster, or Zarathrustra, according to the native
spelling, was, by one account, a Median king who conquered
Babylon about B. C. 2458. By another, which is more probable,
and which rests, moreover, on better authority, he was a
Bactrian, who, at a date not quite so remote, came forward in
the broad plain of the middle Oxus to instil into the minds of
his countrymen the doctrines and precepts of a new religion. …
His religion gradually spread from 'happy Bactra,' 'Bactra of
the lofty banner,' first to the neighbouring countries, and
then to all the numerous tribes of the Iranians, until at last
it became the established religion of the mighty empire of
Persia, which, in the middle of the 6th century before our
era, established itself on the ruins of the Assyrian and
Babylonian kingdoms, and shortly afterwards overran and
subdued the ancient monarchy of the Pharaohs. In Persia it
maintained its ground, despite the shocks of Grecian and
Parthian conquest, until Mohammedan intolerance drove it out
at the point of the sword, and forced it to seek a refuge
further east, in the peninsula of Hindustan. Here it still
continues, in Guzerat and in Bombay, the creed of that
ingenious and intelligent people known to Anglo-Indians—and
may we not say to Englishmen generally?—as Parsees [see
PARSEES]. The religion of the Parsees is contained in a volume
of some size, which has received the name of 'the Zendavesta.'
… 'Anquetil Duperron introduced the sacred book of the Parsees
to the knowledge of Europeans under this name; and the word
thus introduced can scarcely be now displaced.
{3667}
Otherwise, 'Avesta-Zend' might be recommended as the more
proper title. 'Avesta' means 'text,' and Zend means 'comment.'
'Avesta u Zend,' or 'Text and Comment,' is the proper title,
which is then contracted into 'Avesta-Zend.' … Subjected for
the last fifty years to the searching analysis of first-rate
orientalists—Burnouf, Westergaard, Brockhaus, Spiegel, Haug,
Windischmann, Hübschmann,—this work has been found to belong
in its various parts to very different dates, and to admit of
being so dissected as to reveal to us, not only what are the
tenets of the modern Parsees, but what was the earliest form
of that religion whereof theirs is the remote and degenerate
descendant. Signs of a great antiquity are found to attach to
the language of certain rhythmical compositions called Gâthâs
or hymns; and the religious ideas contained in these are found
to be at once harmonious, and also of a simpler and more
primitive character than those contained in the rest of the
volume. From the Gâthâs chiefly, but also to some extent from
other, apparently very ancient, portions of the Zendavesta,
the characteristics of the early Iranian religion have been
drawn out by various scholars, particularly by Dr. Martin
Haug. … The most striking feature of the religion, and that
which is generally allowed to be its leading characteristic,
is the assertion of Dualism. By Dualism we mean the belief in
two original uncreated principles, a principle of good and a
principle of evil. … Both principles were real persons,
possessed of will, intelligence, power, consciousness, and
other personal qualities. To the one they gave the name of
Ahura-Mazda, to the other that of Angro-Mainyus. … The names
themselves sufficiently indicated to those who first used them
the nature of the two beings. Ahura-Mazda was the
'all-bountiful, all-wise, living being' or 'spirit,' who stood
at the head of all that was good and lovely, beautiful and
delightful. Angro-Mainyus was the 'dark and gloomy
intelligence' that had from the first been Ahura-Mazda's
enemy, and was bent on thwarting and vexing him. And with
these fundamental notions agreed all that the sacred books
taught concerning either being. … The two great beings who
thus divided between them the empire of the universe were
neither of them content to be solitary. Each had called into
existence a number of inferior spirits, who acknowledged their
sovereignty, fought on their side, and sought to execute their
behests. At the head of the good spirits subject to
Ahura-Mazda stood a band of six dignified with the title of
Amesha-Spentas, or 'Immortal Holy Ones.' … In direct
antithesis to these stood the band, likewise one of six, which
formed the council and chief support of Angro-Mainyus. …
Besides these leading spirits there was marshalled on either
side an innumerable host of lesser and subordinate ones,
called respectively 'ahuras' and 'devas,' who constituted the
armies or attendants of the two great powers, and were
employed by them to work out their purposes. The leader of the
angelic hosts, or 'ahuras' was a glorious being, called
Sraosha or Serosh—'the good, tall, fair Serosh,' who stood in
the Zoroastrian system where Michael the Archangel stands in
the Christian. … Neither Ahura-Mazda nor the Amesha-Spentas
were represented by the early Iranians under any material
forms. The Zoroastrian system was markedly anti-idolatrous:
and the utmost that was allowed the worshipper was an
emblematic representation of the Supreme Being by means of a
winged circle, with which was occasionally combined an
incomplete human figure, robed and wearing a tiara. … The
position of man in the cosmic scheme was determined by the
fact that he was among the creations of Ahura-Mazda. Formed
and placed on earth by the Good Being, he was bound to render
him implicit obedience, and to oppose to the utmost
Angro-Mainyus and his creatures. His duties might be summed up
under the four heads of piety, purity, industry, and veracity.
Piety was to be shown by an acknowledgment of Ahura-Mazda as
the One True God, by a reverential regard for the
Amesha-Spentas and the Izeds, or lower angels, by the frequent
offering of prayers, praises, and thanksgivings, the
recitation of hymns, the occasional sacrifice of animals, and
the performance from time to time of a curious ceremony known
as that of the Haoma or Homa [see SOMA.—HAOMA). … The purity
required of the Iranians was inward as well as outward. … The
duty of veracity was inculcated perhaps more strenuously than
any other. … If it be asked what opinions were entertained by
the Zoroastrians concerning man's ultimate destiny, the answer
would seem to be, that they were devout and earnest believers
in the immortality of the soul, and a conscious future
existence. … The religion of the early Iranians became
corrupted after a time by an admixture of foreign
superstitions. The followers of Zoroaster, as they spread
themselves from their original seat upon the Oxus over the
regions lying south and south-west of the Caspian Sea, were
brought into contact with a form of faith considerably
different from that to which they had previously been
attached, yet well adapted for blending with it. This was
Magism, or the worship of the elements [see MAGIANS). The
early inhabitants of Armenia, Cappadocia, and the Zagros
mountain-range, had, under circumstances that are unknown to
us, developed this form of religion, and had associated with
its tenets a priest-caste. … The four elements, fire, air,
earth, and water, were recognised as the only proper objects
of human reverence. … When the Zoroastrians came into contact
with Magism, it impressed them favourably. … The result was
that, without giving up any part of their previous creed, the
Iranians adopted and added on to it an the principal points of
the Magian belief, and all the more remarkable of the Magian
religious usages. This religious fusion seems first to have
taken place in Media. The Magi became a Median tribe, and were
adopted as the priest-caste of the "Median nation." This
"produced an amalgam that has shown a surprising vitality,
having lasted above 2,000 years—from the time of Xerxes, the
son of Darius Hystaspis (B. C. 485-465) to the present day."

_G. Rawlinson,
Religions of the Ancient World,
chapter 3._

"As the doctrines of Zoroaster bear in several points such a
striking resemblance to those of Christianity, it is a
question of grave importance to ascertain the age in which he
lived. … Since there can be no doubt that … we must assign to
Zarathustra Spitama a date prior to the Median conquest of
Babylon by a Zoroastrian priest king, the only question
remaining to be solved is, whether he lived only a short time,
or long, before that event.
{3668}
I am inclined to believe that he lived only about 100 or 200
years before that time, and that the conquest of Babylon was
one of the last consequences of the great religious enthusiasm
kindled by him. He preached, like Moses, war and destruction
to all idolaters and wicked men. … According to this
investigation we cannot assign to Zarathustra Spitama a later
date than about 2300 B. C. Thus he lived not only before
Moses, but even, perhaps, before Abraham. … He was the first
prophet of truth who appeared in the world, and kindled a fire
which thousands of years could not entirely extinguish."

_M. Haug,
Lectures on an Original Speech of Zoroaster
(Yasna 45),
pages 17, 26._

_M. Haug,
Essays on the Sacred Language, Writings
and Religion of the Parsees._

"Prof. Darmesteter has published a new translation [of the
Zend Avesta] with a most ably written introduction, in which
he maintains the thesis that not a line of our Avesta text is
older than the time of Alexander's conquest, while the greater
part belongs to a much later date. We may briefly remind our
readers that, according to the traditional view, the old
Zoroastrian books, which belong to the times of the
Achæmenidæ, were destroyed at the Macedonian conquest, but
that portions were preserved by the people, who retained the
old faith, during the long period of the Arsacidan rule,
though the Court favoured Greek civilization. … According to
this view, we still possess the genuine remains of the old
pre-Alexandrine literature, mutilated and corrupted during the
period of Arsacidan indifference, but yet, so far as they go,
a faithful representative of the sacred text of the Achæmenian
time. … Professor Darmesteter, on the contrary, maintains that
all our texts are post-Alexandrine in form and in substance.
Some may belong to the 1st century B. C. or A. D., and some,
as the legislative parts of the Vendidad, may be founded on
older texts now lost; but a large portion was composed by the
priests of Ardashir's Court in the 3d century. The Gâthâs,
which till now have been generally considered as the ancient
nucleus of the whole system and ascribed to Zoroaster himself,
are, in the Professor's opinion, certainly modern, and are
relegated to the 1st century of our era."

_The Athenæum,
June 30, 1894_

ALSO IN:
_W. Geiger,
Civilization of the Eastern Iranians._

_W. Geiger, and F. von Spiegel,
The Age of the Avesta._

_D. F. Karaka,
History of the Parsis._

_S. Johnson,
Oriental Religions: Persia._

ZOTTS.

See GYPSIES.

ZOUAVES, The.