Chapter IV: Of Provincial and Communal Institutions (12)

929.
Death of Charles the Simple in France.

931.
John XI., son of the courtesan Marozia, made Pope.
[Uncertain date]

932.
Domination of Rome by the Pope's brother, Alberic.

936.
Election of Otho, called the Great,
to the throne of Germany.
Death of Rudolph of Burgundy and restoration of the
Carolingians to the French throne.

937.
Ethelstan's defeat of Danes, Britons and Scots
at the battle of Brunnaburgh.
Invasion of France by the Hungarians.

940.
Death of the English king, Ethelstan, and
accession of his brother Edmund.

946.
Death of the English king, Edmund, and
accession of his brother Edred.

951.
First expedition of Otho the Great into Italy;
founding of the Holy Roman Empire (afterwards so called).

954.
Death of Alberic, tyrant of Rome, his son, Octavian,
succeeding him.
Death of the Carolingian king of France, Louis IV.,
called" d'Outremer";
accession of Lothaire.

955.
Germany invaded by the Hungarians;
their decisive defeat on the Lech.
Death of the English king, Edred, and
accession of his nephew, Edwig.

956.
Assumption of the Papal throne by Octavian, as John XII.

957.
Revolt against the English king Edwig;
division of the kingdom with his brother Edgar.
[Uncertain date]

959.
Death of Edwig and accession of Edgar;
Abbot Dunstan made Archbishop of Canterbury.

961.
The crown of Italy taken by Otho the Great, of Germany.

962.
Imperial coronation of Otho the Great at Rome;
revival of the Western Empire.

963.
Expulsion and deposition of Pope John XII.;
election of Leo VIII.

964.
Expulsion of Pope Leo VIII.;
return and death of John XII.;
siege and capture of Rome by the Emperor.

965.
Death of Pope Leo VIII.;
election, expulsion, and forcible restoration of John XIII.

967.
Conquest of Egypt by the Fatimite caliph. [Uncertain date]

969.
Murder of the Eastern Emperor Nicephorus Phocas
by John Zimisces, his successor.

972.
Marriage of Otho, the Western Emperor's son,
to the Byzantine princess, Theophano.
Death of Pope John XIII., and election of Pope Benedict VI.

973.
Death of the Emperor Otho the Great;
accession of Otho II.

974.
Murder of Pope Benedict VI.

975.
Election of Pope Benedict VII.
Death of the English king Edgar;
accession of his son Edward the Martyr.

979.
Death of Edward the Martyr;
accession of Ethelred the Unready. [Uncertain date]

983.
Death of the Emperor Otho II.;
accession of Otho III. to the German throne,
under the regency of his mother, Theophano.
Death of Pope Benedict VII.
First visit of Erik the Red to Greenland.

984.
Election of Pope John XIV.

985.
Murder of Pope John XIV.;
election of Pope John XV.

986.
Death of Lothaire, king of France;
accession of his son Louis V.

987.
Death of Louis V., the last of the Carolingian kings;
election of Hugh Capet.

988.
Death of Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury.
Cherson acquired by the Romans.

991.
Invasion of England by Vikings from Norway;
battle of Maldon.

996.
Death of Hugh Capet, king of France;
accession of his son, Robert II.
Death of Pope John XV.;
election of Gregory V.
Imperial coronation of Otho III.

997.
Insurrection of peasants in Normandy.
Rebellion of Crescentius in Rome;
expulsion of the Pope.

998.
Overthrow of Crescentius at Rome.
Excommunication of King Robert of France.

999.
Gerbert raised by the Emperor to the Papal chair,
as Sylvester II.

1000.
Expectations of the end of the world.
Pilgrimages of the Emperor Otho.
Royal title conferred on Duke Stephen of Hungary,
by the Pope.
Christianity formally adopted in Iceland.

Eleventh Century.

1002.
Massacre of Danes in England on St. Brice's Day.
Death of the Emperor Otto III., and election of Henry II.

1003.
Invasion of England by Sweyn of Denmark.

1005.
Birth of Lanfranc [Uncertain date] (d. 1089).

1013.
Flight to Normandy of the English king, Ethelred.
The West and North of England submissive to Sweyn.
Imperial coronation of Henry II.

1014.
Death of Sweyn.
Return of Ethelred to England;
his war with Sweyn's son Canute.
Defeat of the Danes at the battle of Clontarf in Ireland;
death of King Brian.

1016.
Death of the English kings, Ethelred and his son,
Edmund Ironside.
Submission of the kingdom to Canute, king of Denmark.

1017.
The Saracens driven from Sardinia by the Pisans and Genoese.

1024.
Death of the Emperor Henry II., and election of Conrad II.

1027.
Imperial coronation of Conrad II.

1031.
End of the Ommeyyad caliphate of Cordova, in Spain.
Death of Robert II., king of France;
accession of Henry I.

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1033.
Birth of Saint Anselm. [Uncertain date] (d. 1109).

1035.
Death of Canute, king of England and Denmark,
and accession of his son Harold.
Creation of the kingdom of Aragon in Spain.

1039.
Death of Conrad II., and election of Henry III.,
king of Germany.
Murder of Duncan, king of Scotland,
by his successor, Macbeth.

1040.
Death of Harold, king of England,
and accession of Hardicanute.

1042.
Death of Hardicanute, and end of Danish rule in England.
Accession of Edward the Confessor.

1044.
Sale of the papal see by Benedict IX. to Gregory VI.

1046.
Three rival popes suppressed by the Emperor Henry III.
Election of Pope Clement II.
Imperial coronation of Henry III.

1049.
Election of Pope Leo IX.
The monk Hildebrand made Administrator of
the Patrimony of St. Peter.

1051.
Exile of Earl Godwine of Wessex.
Visit of William of Normandy to England.

1052.
Return of Earl Godwine to England.

1053.
Defeat of Pope Leo IX. by the Guiscards.
The Norman conquests in southern Italy conferred
on them as a fief of the Church.
Death of Earl Godwine.

1054.
Death of Pope Leo IX.
Final separation of the Eastern and Western Churches.

1055.
Election of Pope Victor II.

1056.
Death of the Emperor Henry III.
Election of Henry IV., king of Germany,
under the regency of his mother.

1060.
Death of Henry I., king of France;
accession of Philip I.

1066.
Invasion of England by the Norwegian king, Harold Hardrada,
and Tostig, the English king Harold's brother;
their defeat at Stamford Bridge.
Invasion of England by William, duke of Normandy;
defeat of the English at Senlac or Hastings;
death of Harold, last of the Saxon kings.

1071.
Final overthrow of the English at Ely.
The Norman conquest of England completed.

1073.
Election of Hildebrand (Gregory VII.) to the papal throne.

1075.
Synod of Pope Gregory and its decrees against clerical
incontinence, and decrees against simony.
Beginning of strife between the Pope and Henry IV.
Great defeat of the Saxons, by Henry IV., at Langensalza.

1076.
Council at Worms, called by Henry IV. of Germany,
which pronounces the deposition of the Pope.
Excommunication of Henry by Pope Gregory VII.
Jerusalem captured by the Seljuk Turks.

1077.
Humiliation of Henry IV. before Pope Gregory at Canossa;
election of the anti-king Rudolph.
Donation of the Countess Matilda to the Holy See.
Accession of Ladislaus (called Saint), king of Hungary.

1078.
Building of the Great or White Tower at London.
[Uncertain date]

1079.
Birth of Abelard (d. 1142).

1080.
Renewal of the Pope's ban against Henry IV.
Defeat and death of his rival Rudolph.
Election of the anti-pope, Clement III.

1081.
Unsuccessful attacks on the city of Rome by Henry IV.
Invasion of Greece by the Norman duke, Robert Guiscard.
Constantinople sacked by the army of Alexius Comnenus;
coronation of Alexius.

1084.
Henry IV. in Rome.
Seating of the anti-pope, Clement III.
Imperial coronation of Henry IV.
Sack and burning of Rome by the Normans under Robert Guiscard.
Founding of the Carthusian Order by Saint Bruno.

1085.
Death of Pope Gregory VII. in exile at Salerno.
Death of Robert Guiscard.

1086.
Completion in England of King William's Domesday Survey
and Domesday Book.

1087.
Death of William the Conqueror;
accession of William Rufus to the English throne.

1091.
Rebellion of Conrad, eldest son of the German emperor,
Henry IV.
Birth of Saint Bernard (d. 1153).

1094.
The Council of Clermont.
Address of Pope Urban II.

1095.
Death of (Saint) Ladislaus of Hungary.

1096.
Movement of the first armies of the Crusades;
massacre of Jews in Europe.

1099.
Coronation of Henry v., second son of the emperor,
as King of the Romans.
Recovery of the Holy City by the Crusaders;
founding of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem.

1100.
Death of William Rufus, king of England,
and accession of Henry I.

Twelfth Century.

1101.
Disastrous crusading expeditions from
Italy, France and Germany.
Agreement between King Henry I. of England and
his brother Robert.

1104.
Rebellion against the Emperor, Henry IV., headed by his son.

1135.
Imprisonment and abdication of the Emperor, Henry IV.

1106.
English conquest of Normandy;
defeat and capture of Duke Robert.
Death of the Emperor, Henry IV.

1108.
Death of Philip I., king of France,
and accession of Louis VI. (the Fat).

1109.
Death of Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury.

1110.
Expedition of Henry V. to Italy.

1111.
Insurrection at Rome;
attack on the Germans;
imperial coronation of Henry V.
Concession of the right of investiture by the Pope.

1112.
Repudiation of the Pope's concession and
renewal of the War of Investitures.

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1115.
Death of the Countess Matilda of Tuscany:
her vast possessions bequeathed to the Church.

1118.
Death of Pope Pascal II.
Election of Pope Gelasius II.
and the anti-pope Gregory VIII.
Founding of the Order of the Templars.

1119.
Battle of Noyon, in Normandy.
Death of Pope Gelasius II. and election of Callistus II.

1120.
The sinking of "the White Ship";
drowning of the English King Henry's son.

1121.
Condemnation of Abelard in France.

1122.
Settlement of the question of investitures;
Concordat of Worms.

1123.
First Lateran Council of the Church.

1124.
Death of Pope Callistus II. and election of Honorius II.

1125.
Death of the Emperor Henry V. and election of Lothaire,
of Saxony, to the German throne.
Opening of the strife between Guelfs and
Hohenstaufens or Ghibellines.

1130.
Death of Pope Honorius II.;
election of Innocent II., and the anti-pope, Anacletus II.

1131.
Birth of Maimonides [Uncertain date]
(d. 1201 [Uncertain date]).

1133.
Coronation of the Emperor Lothaire at Rome.

1135.
Death of Henry I., king of England;
civil war between Stephen and Matilda.

1136.
Progress of the Emperor Lothaire through the
peninsula of Italy;
submission of the cities.

1137.
Death of the Emperor Lothaire.
Death of Louis VI. of France and accession of Louis VII.;
his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine.
Birth of Saladin (d. 1193).

1138.
Election in Germany of Conrad of Hohenstaufen.
Second invasion of England by David of Scotland.
Battle of the Standard.

1139.
Banishment from Italy of Arnold of Brescia.
Defeat of the Moors in Portugal by Affonso Henriques,
at the battle of Orik or Ourique.
Second Lateran Council of the Church.

1140.
Siege of Weimsberg.
First use of the party names, Welf or Guelf and
Waiblingen or Ghibelline.
Portugal separated from Castile,
and made a separate kingdom.

1142.
Death of Abelard at Clugny.

1143.
Death of Pope Innocent III.
Election of Celestine II.

1144.
Turkish capture of Edessa.
Jerusalem threatened.
Appeal to Europe.
Death of Pope Celestine II.
Election of Lucius II.

1145.
Death in battle of Pope Lucius II. and
election of Eugenius II.
Establishment of the republic of Arnold of Brescia at Rome.

1146.
Massacre of Jews by Crusaders and mobs in Germany.
Sack of Thebes and Corinth by the Norman
King Roger of Sicily.

1147.
The Second Crusade, from France and Germany.
Lisbon taken from the Moors and
made the capital of Portugal.
Founding of Moscow.

1148.
Unsuccessful siege of Damascus by the Crusaders.

1152.
Death of the Emperor Conrad of Hohenstaufen and
election of Frederick I. (Barbarossa).
Marriage of Prince Henry, afterward Henry II. of England,
to Eleanor of Aquitaine.

1153.
Death of Pope Eugenius III. and election of Anastasius IV.

1154.
Death of Stephen, king of England,
and accession of Henry II.
First expedition of Frederick Barbarossa into Italy.
Death of Pope Anastasius IV. and election of Hadrian IV.
Ireland granted to the English crown by Pope Hadrian IV.

1155.
Overthrow of the republic of Arnold of Brescia at Rome;
his death.
Tumult at the imperial coronation of Frederick Barbarossa.

1158.
Second expedition of Frederick Barbarossa into Italy.
Siege of Milan.

1159.
Death of Pope Hadrian IV.;
election of Alexander III. and the anti-pope Victor IV.

1162.
Thomas Becket made Archbishop of Canterbury.
Destruction of Milan by Frederick Barbarossa.
Birth of Genghis Khan [Uncertain date] (d. 1227).

1163.
Third visitation of Frederick Barbarossa to Italy.

1164.
Enactment of the Constitutions of Clarendon in England.
Death of the anti-pope Victor IV. and election of
the anti-pope Pascal III.

1166.
The Assize of Clarendon in England.
Fourth Italian expedition of Frederick Barbarossa.

1167.
Formation of the League of Lombardy;
rebuilding of Milan.
Storming of Rome by Frederick Barbarossa;
seating of the anti-pope Pascal.

1168.
Death of the anti-pope Pascal III. and
election of the anti-pope Callistus III.

1169.
Beginning of Strongbow's conquest of Ireland.

1170.
Murder of Archbishop Thomas Becket in England.
Birth of Saint Dominic (d. 1221).

1174.
Invasion of England by King William of Scotland.
His defeat and capture.
Last visitation of Italy by Frederick Barbarossa.
The leaning tower of Pisa commenced.

1175.
Anglo-Norman conquest of Ireland completed;
limits of the English pale defined.

1176.
Defeat of Frederick Barbarossa by the
Lombard League at Legnano.

1177.
The peace of Venice;
submission of the Emperor to the Pope, Alexander III.

1179.
Submission of the anti-pope, Callistus III.,
to Pope Alexander III.
Third Lateran Council of the Church.

1180.
Death of Louis VII., king of France,
and accession of Philip Augustus.
Sentence against Henry the Lion in Germany.

1181.
Death of Pope Alexander III. and election of Lucius III.

1182.
Birth of Saint Francis of Assisi (d. 1226).

1183.
Peace of Constance between Germany and Italy.
Independence of the Lombard Republics.

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1184.
Birth of Saadi [Uncertain date] (d. 1291).

1185.
Death of Pope Lucius III. and election of Urban III.

1187. Saladin's victory at Tiberias;
recovery of Jerusalem by the Moslems.
Death of Pope Urban III.;
election and death of Gregory VIII.;
election of Clement III.
End of the Ghaznavide dynasty in Afghanistan.

1188.
Imposition of the Tithe of Saladin in England.

1189.
Death of King Henry II. of England and
accession of Richard I. (Cœur de Lion).
Crusade of King Richard of England, Philip Augustus
of France, and Frederick Barbarossa of Germany.
Massacre of Jews in England.

1190.
Death, by drowning, of the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa,
in Asia Minor;
accession of Henry VI., king of Germany.

1191.
Death of Pope Clement III. and election of Celestine III.
Imperial coronation of the Emperor Henry VI.

1192.
Captivity of King Richard of England.

1195.
Birth of Matthew Paris [Uncertain date] (d. 1259).

1196.
Crusade of German barons to the Holy Land.

1199.
Death of King Richard I. of England;
accession of John.

Thirteenth Century.

1201.
Crusade to the Holy Land urged by Pope Innocent III.
Institution of the Order of the Sword for crusading
against the heathen of the Baltic region.
Cession to the Papacy by the Emperor, Otho IV., of all
the territory claimed by Innocent III. as constituting
the States of the Church.
Chartering of the University of Paris by Philip Augustus.

1202.
The Crusaders at Venice;
their bargain with the Venetians and attack on Zara.

1203.
Attack on Constantinople by the Crusaders and Venetians.

1204.
Capture and pillage of Constantinople by
the Crusaders and Venetians;
creation of the Latin Empire of Romania and election of
Baldwin of Flanders to the throne.
Loss of Normandy by King John of England.
Founding of the Monastery of Port Royal.

1205.
Genghis Khan proclaimed by a great assembly Khakan
or Emperor of Tartary.

1206.
Founding of the Greek empire of Nicæa by Theodore Lascaris.

1209.
First crusade against the Albigenses,
instigated by Pope Innocent III.
Imperial coronation of Otho IV. at Rome.

1210.
Second crusade against the Albigenses.
Founding of the Franciscan Order of Friars.

1212.
Children's Crusade from France and Germany.
Great defeat of the Moors by the Christians on
Las Navas de Tolosa, in Spain.

1213.
Subjugation of the Albigenses by Simon de Montfort,
who receives the principality of Toulouse.
Submission of John of England to the Pope as a vassal.

1214.
Battle of Bouvines, in Flanders;
defeat of the English king, John, and the German
king and emperor Otho IV., by Philip Augustus of France.
Birth of Roger Bacon (d. 1292).

1215.
The Great Charter extorted from King John by
the barons of England.
Founding of the Dominican Order of Friars.
Beginning, in Florence, of the fierce quarrel
of Guelfs and Ghibellines.

1216.
Election of Pope Honorius III.
Crusade to the Holy Land led by King Andrew of Hungary.
Death of King John of England and accession of Henry III.

1217.
Revolt of the Toulousans;
death of Simon de Montfort.

1218.
Death of the Emperor Otho IV.
Attack of the Crusaders on Egypt;
siege of Damietta.

1220.
Imperial coronation of Frederick II., the Hohenstaufen.
Evacuation of Egypt by the Crusaders.
Destruction of Bokhara by Genghis Khan.

1222.
The charter called the Golden Bull conferred on Hungary
by King Andrew.

1223.
Death of Philip Augustus, king of France, and
accession of Louis VIII.

1224.
Birth of Sire de Joinville (d. 1317).

1226.
Renewed crusade against the Albigenses;
invasion of Languedoc by the French king, Louis VIII.,
after buying the rights of Simon de Montfort's son.
Death of Louis VIII. and accession in France of Louis IX.
(Saint Louis) under the regency of Blanche of Castile.

1227.
Election of Pope Gregory IX.
Death of Genghis Khan.
Birth of Thomas Aquinas [Uncertain date] (d. 1274).

1228.
Crusade led by the Emperor Frederick II.
His treaty with the Sultan recovering Jerusalem.

1229.

Cession, by treaty, of two thirds of the dominions of the
expelled Count of Toulouse to the king of France.
Frederick II. in Jerusalem.

1230.
Castile and Leon united under Ferdinand III.

1235.
Recovery of Cordova from the Moors by Ferdinand III.
of Leon and Castile.

1236.
Defeat of the Lombard League by Frederick II. at Cortenuova.

1238.
Founding of the Moorish kingdom of Granada, in Spain.

1240.
Birth of Cimabue (d. 1302 [Uncertain date]).

1241.
Election and death of Celestine IV.
Invasion and desolation of Russia, Hungary and Poland
by the Mongols, or Tatars.

1242.
Sack of Jerusalem by the Carismians.

1243.
Election of Pope Innocent IV.

1244.
Earliest use of the name Parliament in England.

1245.
Decree of the Council at Lyons, held by Pope Innocent IV.,
deposing Frederick II.

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1248.
Expulsion of the Guelfs from Florence.
Crusade of Saint Louis.
Recovery of Seville from the Moors by
King Ferdinand III. of Leon and Castile.

1249.
Commencement of the building of Cologne cathedral.

1250.
Death of the Emperor Frederick II.
Rising of the people and establishing of a popular
constitution in Florence.
Defeat and captivity of Saint Louis and
his crusaders in Egypt.

1252.
Crusading movement of "the Pastors" in France.

1254.
Election In Germany of William of Holland to be
King of the Romans.
Election of Pope Alexander IV.
Return of the Guelfs to Florence,
driving out the Ghibellines.

1257.
Double election in Germany of Richard, Earl of Cornwall,
and King Alfonso X. of Castile, rival Kings of the Romans.

1258.
Formulation in England of the Provisions of Oxford.
Founding of the Mongol empire of the Ilkhans,
embracing Persia and Mesopotamia.

1259.
Beginning of the reign of the great Mongol sovereign,
Kublai Khan, whose empire covered most of Asia.

1260.
Defeat of the Florentine Guelfs at Montaperte by the
exiled Ghibellines;
expulsion of Guelfs from Florence and Lucca.

1261.
Fall of the Latin Empire of Romania;
recovery of Constantinople by the Greeks of Nicæa.
Election of Pope Urban IV.

1263.
Norwegian invasion of Scotland and defeat at Largs.

1264.
Battle of Lewes, in England;
victory of the Barons.
Summoning of Simon de Montfort's Parliament.

1263.
Election of Pope Clement IV.
Battle of Evesham in England;
defeat and death of Simon de Montfort.
Birth of Dante (d. 1321).
Birth of Duns Scotus (d. 1308).

1266.
Conquest of Sicily by Charles of Anjou.
Exclusion of the Florentine Grandi, or nobles,
from all part in the government of the commonwealth.

1268.
Execution of Conradin, the last Hohenstaufen, in Sicily.

1269.
Restoration of the Guelfs in Florence,
with help from Charles of Anjou.

1270.
Second Crusade of Saint Louis;
his attack on Tunis;
his death;
accession in France of Philip III.

1271.
Election of Pope Gregory X.
Crusade of Prince Edward, of England.

1272.
End of the Great Interregnum in the Empire;
election of Rudolf of Hapsburg, King of the Romans.
Death of Henry III. king of England, during the absence
in the Holy Land of his son and successor, Edward I.

1276.
Election and death of Popes Innocent V. and Hadrian V.;
election of Pope John XXI.
Birth of Giotto (d. 1337 [Uncertain date]).

1277.
Election of Pope Nicholas III.

1278.
Defeat, at Marschfeld, of Ottocar, king of Bohemia,
by Rudolf of Hapsburg.
Ghibellines permitted to return to Florence.

1281.
Election of Pope Martin IV.

1282.
Settlement of Austria, Styria and Carniola on the
Hapsburg family, thus founding the House of Austria.
Massacre of French in Sicily, called "the Sicilian Vespers";
acquisition of the crown of Sicily by Pedro of Aragon.

1284.
Completed conquest of Wales by Edward I. of England.

1285.
Election of Pope Honorius IV.
Death of Philip III., in France, and accession cf Philip IV.

1288.
Election of Pope Nicholas IV.

1289.
Victory of the Florentines at Campaldino over the
Ghibellines of Arezzo and their allies.

1290.
Expulsion of Jews from England by Edward I.
Death of Margaret, queen of Scotland,
called "The Maid of Norway";
disputed succession to the Scottish throne.
Birth of John Tauler (d. 1361).

1291.
Death of Rudolf of Hapsburg;
election of Adolf of Nassau, King of the Romans.
Siege and conquest of Acre by the Sultan of Egypt and Syria;
end of the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem;
rally of the Knights Hospitallers in Cyprus.
Confederation of the three Forest Cantons of Switzerland.

1294.
Election and abdication of Pope Celestine V.;
election of Boniface VIII.

1295.
The "first perfect and model Parliament" of England
summoned by King Edward I.

1296.
Fulmination of the bull "Clericis laicos" by Pope
Boniface VIII. against the taxation of the clergy by
Philip the Fair of France.
Invasion and conquest of Scotland by Edward I. of England.

1297.
Defeat of the English at Stirling by
the Scottish hero Wallace.

1298.
Deposition of Adolf of Nassau by the German Electors,
and election of Albert of Austria.

1299.
Alliance of the Templars with the Mongols,
and defeat of the Turks at Hems;
momentary recovery of Jerusalem.
Invasion of the Greek Empire by the Ottoman Turks.

1300.
Institution of the Jubilee by Pope Boniface VIII.
Rise of the factions of the Neri and Bianchi at Florence.
Birth of William Occam (d. 1347).

Fourteenth Century.

1301.
The papal bulls, "Salvator mundi" and "Ausculta fill,"
launched by Pope Boniface VIII. against Philip IV.,
king of France.
First meeting of the States-General of France,
convened by the king.
Death of Andrew III., king of Hungary, ending the Arpad
line of sovereigns, and leaving the crown contested for
several years.

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1302.
Banishment of Dante and his party from Florence.

1303.
Seizure of Pope Boniface VIII. at Agnani; his death;
election of Benedict XI.
Submission of Scotland to Edward I. of England.

1304.
Birth of Petrarch (d. 1374).

1305.
Election of Pope Clement V.
Establishment of the papal court at Lyons, France;
beginning of the so-called "Babylonish Captivity."

1306.
Rising in Scotland under Robert Bruce against the rule
of the English king.

1307.
Arrest of the Knights Templars in France by King Philip V.
Death of Edward 1., king of England,
and accession of Edward II.
Ravages of the Catalan Grand Company in Greece.

1308.
Election in Germany of Henry of Luxemburg (Henry VII.).

1309.
Removal of the papal court to Avignon.

1310.
The burning of 59 Templars at Paris.
Expedition of Henry VII. into Italy.
Acquisition of the crown of Hungary by the Neapolitan House
of Anjou, in the person of Charles Robert, or Charobert.
Conquest of Rhodes from the Turks by the
Knights Hospitallers of St. John.

1311.
Sovereignty of Milan secured by Matteo Visconti.

1312.
Abolition of the Order of the Templars.
Imperial coronation of Henry VII. at Rome.

1313.
Death of the Emperor Henry VII. at Pisa.
Birth of Boccaccio (d. 1375).

1314.
Death in France of Philip IV., called "the Fair,"
and accession of Louis X., called "Hutin."
Election in Germany of rival Kings of the Romans,
Frederick of Austria and Louis of Bavaria (Louis V.).
Great defeat of the English by the Scots at Bannockburn.
Invasion of Ireland by Edward Bruce.

1315.
Edict of the French king, Louis Hutin, emancipating all
serfs within the royal domains, on payment of a just composition.
Defeat of Frederick of Austria by the Swiss at Morgarten.

1316.
Election of Pope John XXII.
Death, in France, of Louis Hutin, and
accession of his brother Philip V.

1318.
Defeat and death of Edward Bruce,
in the battle of Dundalk, Ireland.

1320.
Establishment of the tyranny of Castruccio at Lucca.
Composition of the Old English poem, "Cursor Mundi."
[Uncertain date]

1322.
Death of the French king, Philip V.,
and accession of his brother, Charles IV.
Triumph of Louis V. over Frederick at the battle of
Muhldorf in Germany;
excommunication of Louis.
Departure of Sir John Maundeville on his travels in the East.

1324.
Birth of Wyclif [Uncertain date] (d. 1384).
Birth of William of Wykeham (d. 1404).

1325.
Birth of John Gower [Uncertain date] (d. 1408).

1326.
First admission of burgesses into the Scottish parliament.

1327.
Death of Edward II., king of England,
and accession of Edward III.
Expedition of Louis V., of Germany, into Italy;
his Imperial coronation at Rome.

1328.
Death of Charles IV., king of France, and accession of
Philip VI., the first of the House of Valois.
Peace of Northampton between the English and the Scotch.
Death of Castruccio, of Lucca.
Birth of Chaucer [Uncertain date] (d. 1400).

1329.
Death of Robert Bruce, king of Scotland and
accession of his infant son, David.

1330.
Surrender of Nicæa to the Ottoman Turks.

1332.
Acquisition of the throne of Scotland by Edward Balliol,
with English aid.

1333.
Defeat of the Scots by Edward III. of England,
at Halidon Hill.
Accession in Poland of Casimir the Great,
last king of the Piast line.

1334.
Election of Pope Benedict XII.

1336.
Birth of Timour, or Tamerlane (d. 1405).

1337.
Revolt of the Flemings under Jacques Van Arteveld.
Birth of Froissart, the chronicler
(d. 1410 [Uncertain date]).

1338.
Declaration by the German Diet of the independence of
the Empire in temporal matters.

1339.
Beginning of the Hundred Years War between the English
and French kings.

1340.
Successful war of the Hanseatic League with Denmark.

1341.
Return of King David II. to Scotland,
Edward Balliol retiring.

1342.
Walter de Brienne, Duke of Athens,
proclaimed sovereign lord of Florence.
Death of Charles Robert, king of Hungary,
and accession of Louis, called the Great.
Election of Pope Clement VI.

1343.
Expulsion of the duke of Athens from Florence.
Death of Robert, king of Naples.
Accession of Queen Joanna I.

1345.
Downfall and death of Jacques Van Arteveld at Ghent.

1346.
Great English victory over the French at Crecy.
Defeat of the Scots by the English at Neville's Cross,
and captivity of King David II.

1347.
Outbreak in Europe of the plague called "the Black Death."
Death, in Germany, of Louis V. and election of Charles IV.
Revolution of Rienzi, in Rome.

1348.
Purchase of the sovereignty of Avignon by Pope Clement VI.
from Joanna, queen of Naples and countess of Provence.
Founding of the University of Prague.

1350.
Death of Philip VI. of France and accession of King John.

1352.
Election of Pope Innocent VI.

1353.
Downfall and death of Rienzi, at Rome.

1356.
Defeat of the French by the English Black Prince at Poitiers.
Promulgation in Germany of the Golden Bull of Charles IV.

1357.
Meeting of the States-General of France and popular
movement in Paris under Stephen Marcel.

{3829}

1358.
Insurrection of the Jacquerie in France.

1360.
The Peace of Bretigny between England and France,
suspending for a time the Hundred Years War.
Outbreak of the Children's Plague in England.
First distinct appearance of Wycliffe in English history,
as an Oxford lecturer.

1361.
Adrianople taken by the Turks and made the capital of Solyman.

1362. Election of Pope Urban V.
Conjectured composition or beginning of Langland's
"Piers Plowman," in its first form. [Uncertain date]

1364.
Death of King John of France;
accession of Charles V.

1366.
Birth of the painter Hubert van Eyck (d. 1426).

1367.
Victory of the Black Prince at Navarette, in Spain,
restoring Peter the Cruel to the throne of Castile.
Passage of the Kilkenny Act, in Ireland.

1369.
Reopening of the Hundred Years War in France.
Death, in Poland, of Casimir the Great, passing the
crown to Louis of Anjou, king of Hungary.

1370.
Beginning of the Stuart dynasty on the Scottish throne.

1371.
Election of Pope Gregory XI.

1373.
Birth of John Huss [Uncertain date] (d. 1415).

1374.
Appearance in Europe of the Dancing Mania.

1375.
Appointment at Florence of the Eight Saints of War.

1376.
Death, in England, of the Black Prince.

1377.
Return of the papal court to Rome from Avignon.
Death, in England, of Edward III.,
and accession of Richard II.
Birth of Brunelleschi (d. 1444).

1378.
Election of rival popes, Urban VI. and Clement VII.;
beginning of the Great Schism.
Death of the Emperor Charles IV., in Germany, and succession
of Wenceslaus (elected King of the Romans in 1376).
Tumult of the Ciompi in Florence.

1379.
War of the factions of the rival popes In Rome.
Revolt of the White Hoods in Flanders.

1380.
Death, in France, of Charles V.,
and accession of Charles VI.
Post messengers established in Germany by
the Teutonic Knights.
Birth of Thomas a Kempis [Uncertain date] (d. 1471).

1381.
Capture of Naples by Charles of Durazzo, who became
king as Charles III.
Insurrection of the Maillotins in Paris.
Rise to power in Flanders of Philip Van Arteveld.
Wat Tyler's rebellion in England.

1382.
Death of Louis the Great, king of Hungary and Poland;
accession of his daughter Mary in Hungary,
and of Hedvige, daughter of Casimir the Great, in Poland.
Death, in prison, of Queen Joanna, of Naples.
Defeat and death of Philip Van Arteveld at Rosebecque.

1383.
Incorporation of Flanders in the dominions of
the Duke of Burgundy.
Birth of Donatello (d. 1466).

1385.
Acquisition of the crown of Portugal by John I.,
founder of the House of Avis.

1386.
Marriage of the Emperor Sigismund to Mary, Queen of Hungary.
Assassination, in Hungary, of Charles III. of Naples;
accession in Naples of Ladislas, contested by Louis of Anjou.
Marriage of Hedvige, queen of Poland, to Jagellon,
duke of Lithuania, uniting the states and founding the
Jagellon dynasty.
Victory of the Swiss over the Austrians at Sempach.

1387.
Birth of Fra Angelico (d. 1455 [Uncertain date]).

1388.
Battle of Otterburn between the Scots and the English.
Defeat of the Austrians by the Swiss at Naefels.
Death of the Persian poet Hafiz. [Uncertain date]

1389.
Turkish conquest of Bulgaria and Servia by Amurath I.;
decisive battle of Kossova.
Election, at Rome, of Pope Boniface IX.

1390.
War of Florence with the duke of Milan.
Birth of Jan van Eyck [Uncertain date]
(d. 1440 [Uncertain date]).

1392.
Appearance of insanity in the young French king,
Charles VI.

1394.
Birth of the Portuguese Prince Henry, "the Navigator"
(d. 1460).

1395.
The Milanese dominion of the Visconti created a duchy
of the Empire by the Emperor Wenceslaus.

1396.
Great defeat at Nicopolis of the Christian defenders of
Hungary by the Turkish Sultan Bajazet.

1397.
Union of the three crowns of Sweden, Denmark and Norway,
called the Union of Calmar.

1398.
Invasion of India by Timour, or Tamerlane.

1399.
Deposition of Richard II. from the English throne by
Henry of Bolingbroke, duke of Lancaster, who became
king as Henry IV.

1400.
Deposition of Wenceslaus by the electoral college of Germany.
Invasion of Scotland by Henry IV. of England.

Fifteenth Century.

1402.
Birth of Masaccio (d. 1428).

1403.
Hotspur's rebellion in England.

1405.
Sale of Pisa to Florence by the Visconti.
Capture by the English of the heir to the Scottish crown,
afterwards James I.

1406.
Surrender of the Pisans to Florence after a year of war.

1407.
Founding of the Bank of St. George at Genoa.

1409.
Chartering of the University of Leipsic.
Meeting of the Council of Pisa.

1411.
Defeat of the Scottish Lord of the Isles and
the Highland clans at the battle of Harlaw.
Founding of the University of St. Andrew's.

1412.
Meeting of the Council called at Rome by Pope John XXIII.
Birth of Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans (d. 1431).
Birth of Filippo Lippi (d. 1469).

{3830}

1414.
Meeting of the Council of Constance;
summons to John Huss to appear before the Council.

1415.
Condemnation and martyrdom of Huss.
Renewal of the Hundred Years War with France
by Henry V. of England;
his great victory at Agincourt.
Capture of Ceuta from the Moors by the Portuguese.

1417.
Massacre of Armagnacs at Paris.
Creation of the Electorate of Brandenburg by
the Emperor Sigismund and its bestowal on Frederick,
Count of Zollern, or Hohenzollern.
Deposition of the rival popes by the Council of Constance,
and ending of the Great Schism;
election of Pope Martin V.

1419.
Rising of the Hussites in Bohemia.
Assassination of the duke of Burgundy, at the Bridge of
Montereau, and alliance of the Burgundians with the
English invaders of France.

1420.
First crusade against the Bohemian Hussites
summoned by the Pope.
Treaty of Troyes between the English king, Henry V.,
in France, and the Burgundians;
marriage of Henry V. to Princess Catherine, of France.

1421.
Second crusade against the Bohemians.

1422.
Date of the first in the collection of Paston Letters.
Death of Henry V., king of England, and claiming
to be king of France;
accession of his infant son Henry VI.
Death of Charles VI., king of France;
the succession of his son, Charles VII.,
disputed in favor of the Infant Henry VI. of England.

1424.
Release of James I. of Scotland from his
long captivity in England.

1429.
Siege of Orleans by the English, repelled,
under the influence of Jeanne d'Arc;
coronation of Charles VII., king of France.

1430.
Capture of Jeanne d'Arc by the English.
Acquisition of the greater part of the Netherlands
by Philip of Burgundy.

1431.
Condemnation and burning of Jeanne d'Arc for witchcraft
by the English.
Election of Pope Eugenius IV.
Meeting of the Council of Basle.
Birth of Mantegna (d. 1506).

1433.
Treaty of the Council of Basle with the insurgent Bohemians.

1434.
Organization of the Utraquist national church in Bohemia.
Attainment of power in Florence by Cosmo de' Medici.
First expedition sent out by the Portuguese Prince Henry
to explore the western coast of Africa.
Birth of Boiardo [Uncertain date] (d. 1494).

1437.
Recovery of Paris from the English by the French king,
Charles VII.
Death of Sigismund, emperor, and king of Hungary;
election of Albert of Austria to the Hungarian throne.

1438.
Election of Albert II. of Austria by the German
electoral princes.

1439.
Death of Albert II., of Germany and Hungary;
election of Ladislaus III., king of Poland,
to the Hungarian throne.

1440.
Election of Frederick III., of Austria,
by the electoral princes of Germany.

1442.
Ladislaus, posthumous son of Albert of Austria,
acknowledged king of Bohemia, and prospective king of
Hungary, on the attainment of his majority.
First modern Importation of negro slaves into Europe,
by the Portuguese.

1444.
Defeat of the Hungarians by the Turks at Varna and
death of Ladislaus III., king of Poland and Hungary;
government in Hungary entrusted to John Huniades,
during the minority of Ladislaus Posthumus.

1445.
Destruction of Corinth by the Turks.
Birth of Comines, the chronicler (d. 1509).

1446.
Birth of Perugino (d. 1524).

1447.
Election of Pope Nicholas V., founder of the Vatican Library.
Death of the last of the ducal family of Visconti,
leaving the duchy in dispute.

1450.
Rebellion of Jack Cade in England.
Possession of Milan and the duchy won by Francesco Sforza.

1451.
Rebellion of Ghent against Philip of Burgundy.
Founding of the University of Glasgow.

1452.
Birth of Savonarola (d. 1498).
Birth of Leonardo da Vinci (d. 1519).

1453.
Conquest of Constantinople by the Turks.
Defeat of the men of Ghent at Gaveren and their
submission to the duke of Burgundy.
Austria raised to the rank of an archduchy by the
Emperor Frederick III.
Unsuccessful rising in Rome, against the Papacy,
under Stefano-Porcaro.

1454.
Production of the first known Printing with movable type
by Gutenberg and Fust, at Mentz.
Treaty of Venice with the Turks, securing trade privileges
and certain possessions in Greece.

1455.
Beginning of the Wars of the Roses in England.

1456.
The Turks in possession of Athens.
Siege of Belgrade by the Turks and their defeat by Huniades;
death of Huniades.
Publication at Mentz of the first printed Bible,
now called the Mazarin Bible. [Uncertain date]

1457.
Organization of the church of the Unitas Fratrum in Bohemia.
Death of Ladislaus Posthumus, king of Bohemia and of
Hungary and archduke of Austria.

1458.
Submission of Genoa to the king of France.
Election of Matthias, son of Huniades, king of Hungary,
and George Podiebrad, leader of the church-reform party,
king of Bohemia.
Division of the crowns of Naples and Sicily (the Two Sicilies)
on the death of Alfonso of Aragon.

1460.
Death of Prince Henry the Navigator.

1461.
Death of Charles VII., king of France,
and accession of Louis XI.
Emancipation of Genoa from the yoke of France.
Surrender of Trebizond, the last Greek capital,
to the Ottoman Turks.
Deposition of Henry VI. declared by a council of lords in
England and Edward Duke of York crowned king (Ed ward IV.);
defeat of Lancastrians at Towton.

{3831}

1463.
War between Turks and Venetians in Greece.
Birth of Pico della Mirandola (d. 1494).

1464.
Submission of Genoa to the duke of Milan.

1465.
League of the Public Weal, in France, against Louis XI.;
battle of Montlehery.
Siege, capture and pillage of Athens by the Venetians.

1467.
Accession of Charles the Bold to the dukedom of Burgundy;
beginning of his war with the Liégois.
Crusade against George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia,
proclaimed by the Pope.
Birth of Erasmus [Uncertain date] (d. 1536).

1468.
Visit of Louis XI. to Charles the Bold, at Peronne;
capture and destruction of Liege by Charles.
War of the king of Bohemia with Austria and Hungary.

1469.
Beginning of the rule of Lorenzo de' Medici
(the Magnificent) in Florence.
Marriage of Isabella of Castile to Ferdinand of Aragon.
Birth of Machiavelli (d. 1527).

1470.
Restoration of Henry VI. to the English throne
by Earl Warwick;
flight of Edward IV.
Siege and capture of Negropont by the Turks, and massacre
of the inhabitants.

1471.
Acquisition of Cyprus by the Venetians.
Return of Edward IV. to England;
his victories at Barnet and Tewksbury and
recovery of the throne;
death of Henry VI. in the Tower.
Death of George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia, and election
of Ladislaus, son of the king of Poland, to succeed him.
Translation by Caxton of "Recueil des Histoires de Troyes,"
by Raoul le Fèvre.
Birth of Albert Durer (d. 1528).
Birth of Cardinal Wolsey (d. 1530).

1473.
Birth of Copernicus (d. 1543).

1474.
Birth of Las Casas (d. 1566).
Birth of Ariosto (d. 1533).

1475.
Birth of the Michael Angelo (d. 1564).
Birth of the Chevalier Bayard (d. 1524).

1477.
Marriage of Maximilian, son of the Emperor Frederick III.,
to Mary of Burgundy.
Invasion of Italy by the Turks, approaching to within
sight of Venice.
Production from Caxton's press of the "Dictes or Sayengis
of the Philosophers," the first book printed in England.
War with the Swiss, defeat and death of Charles the Bold.
Grant of the Great Privilege of Holland and Zealand by
Duchess Mary of Burgundy, daughter of Charles the Bold.
Birth of Giorgione (d. 1511).
Birth of Titian (d. 1576).

1478.
Conspiracy of the Pazzi in Florence.
Overthrow of the city-republic of Novgorod by
Ivan III. of Russia.

1480.
Birth of Sir Thomas More (d. 1535).

1481.
Founding of the Holy Office of the Inquisition at Seville.
Printing in England of Caxton's translation of
"Reynard the Fox." [Uncertain date]

1482.
Death of Mary of Burgundy and succession of her infant son,
Duke Philip, to the sovereignty of the Netherlands.

1483.
Death of Edward IV. king of England;
murder of the princes, his sons, and usurpation of the
throne by his brother Richard.
Death of Louis XI., of France, and accession of Charles VIII.
Appointment of Torquemada Inquisitor General for Castile
and Aragon.
Birth of Luther (d. 1546).
Birth of Raphael (d. 1520).

1484.
Birth of the Swiss reformer, Zwingli (d. 1531).

1485.
Arrival of Columbus in Spain, seeking help for a westward
voyage to find the Indies.
Overthrow and death of Richard III. in England,
on Bosworth Field;
accession of Henry VII., the first of the Tudor line.
Appearance in England of the Sweating Sickness.
Capture of Vienna by Matthias of Hungary and expulsion of
the Emperor Frederick III. from his hereditary dominions.
Printing of Malory's "Morte d' Arthur." [Uncertain date]

1486.
Election of Maximilian, son of the Emperor, Frederick III.,
King of the Romans.
Unconscious doubling of the Cape of Good Hope by
Bartholomew Diaz.

1487.
Rebellion of Lambert Simnel in England.
Birth of Andrea del Sarto (d. 1531).

1488.
Capture and confinement for four months of Maximilian,
then King of the Romans, by the citizens of Bruges.
Rebellion in Scotland and defeat and death of James III.
at Sauchie Burn.

1490.
Beginning of the preaching of Savonarola at Florence.
Death of Matthias, king of Hungary, and election to the
Hungarian throne of the Bohemian king, Ladislaus II.
Birth of Thomas Cromwell [Uncertain date] (d. 1540).
Birth of Vittoria Colonna (d. 1547).

1491.
Union of Brittany with France, by marriage of the
Duchess Anne to Charles VIII.
Conquest of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella;
end of Moorish dominion in Spain.
Birth of Loyola (d. 1556).

1492.
First voyage of Columbus westward, resulting in the
discovery of the Bahamas, Cuba and Hayti.
Death of Lorenzo de' Medici at Florence.
Outbreak of the Bundschuh insurrection in Germany.
Expulsion of Jews from Spain.
Election of Pope Alexander VI. (Roderigo Borgia).

1493.
Papal bull granting to Spain the New World found by
Columbus and defining the rights of Spain and Portugal.
Second voyage of Columbus.
Death of the Emperor Frederick III.;
assumption of the title (without coronation at Rome),
of "emperor elect" by his son Maximilian, already elected
King of the Romans.
Birth of Paracelsus (d. 1541).

1494.
Treaty of Tordesillas between Spain and Portugal,
partitioning the ocean.
Expedition of Charles VIII. into Italy.
Expulsion of Pietro de' Medici, son of Lorenzo,
from Florence;
formation of the Christian Commonwealth at Florence
under Savonarola.
Passage of the Poynings Laws in Ireland.
Birth of Hans Sachs (d. 1578 [Uncertain date]).
Birth of Correggio Granada (d. 1534).

1495.
Abolition of the right of private warfare (diffidation)
in Germany.
Easy conquest of Naples by Charles VIII. of France,
and his quick retreat.
Birth of Rabelais [Uncertain date] (d. 1553).
Birth of Clement Marot [Uncertain date] (d. 1544).

1496.
Marriage of Philip, son of Maximilian of Austria and
Mary of Burgundy, to Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and
Isabella of Spain.
Rebellion of Perkin Warbeck in England.
Establishing of the Estienne or Stephanus press in Paris.

{3832}

1497.
Discovery of the continent of North America by John Cabot.
Disputed first voyage of Americus Vespucius to the New World.
Discovery of the passage to India round the Cape of
Good Hope by Vasco da Gama.
Excommunication of Savonarola by the Pope.
Birth of Melancthon (d. 1560).

1498.
Third voyage of Columbus, to the northern coast
of South America;
his arrest and return to Spain in irons.
Arrest and execution of Savonarola at Florence.
Death of Charles VIII., king of France,
and accession of Louis XIII.
Birth of Hans Holbein (d. 1559).

1499.
Voyage of Americus Vespucius, with Ojeda,
to the Venezuela coast.
Conquest of Milan and the duchy by Louis XII. of France.
Founding of the Sefavean dynasty in Persia and
establishment of the Shiah sect in ascendancy.

1500.
Voyage of the Cortereals to Newfoundland.
Discovery of Brazil by the Portuguese navigator, Cabral.
Birth of Charles, eldest son of Philip of Burgundy and
Joanna of Spain, who became, the Emperor Charles V.
and who united the sovereignties of Austria, Burgundy and Spain.
Birth of Benvenuto Cellini (d. 1570).

Sixteenth Century.

1501.
Voyage of Americus Vespucius, in the Portuguese service,
to the Brazilian coast.
Creation of the Aulic Council by the Emperor Maximilian.
Joint conquest and partition of the kingdom of Naples by
Louis XII. of France and Ferdinand of Aragon.

1502.
Fourth and last voyage of Columbus coasting Central America.
Election of Montezuma to the military chieftainship
of the Aztecs.
Marriage of King James IV. of Scotland to Margaret,
daughter of Henry VII. of England, which brought the
Stuarts to the English throne.
Quarrel and war between the French and Spaniards in Naples.

1503.
Election of Pope Julius II.
Birth of Garcilaso de la Vega (d. 1536).

1504.
Expulsion of the French from Naples by the Spaniards,
under the Great Captain.
Suppression of the independence of the Scottish
Lord of the Isles.

1505.
Birth of John Knox (d. 1572).

1506.
Death of Columbus.
Death of Philip, consort of Queen Joanna of Castile,
and acting sovereign.
Beginning of the building of St. Peter's at Rome
by Pope Julius II.
Birth of Saint Francis Xavier (d. 1552).

1507.
Unsuccessful revolt of Genoa against the French.

1508.
Formation of the League of Cambrai against Venice
by the kings of France and Aragon, the Emperor, the Pope
and the republic of Florence.
Birth of the duke of Alva, or Alba (d. 1582).

1509.
First Spanish settlement on the American mainland.
Death of Henry VII., king of England, and
accession of Henry VIII.
Publication of Barclay's "Ship of Fools."
Birth of Calvin (d. 1564).

1510.
Portuguese occupation of Goa on the coast of India.
Dissolution of the League of Cambrai, and alliance of
Pope Julius II. with Venice and the Swiss against France.
Birth of Palissy the potter (d. 1590).

1511.
Spanish conquest of Cuba.
Formation of the Holy League of Pope Julius II. with
Venice, Aragon and England against France.

1512.
Discovery of Florida by Ponce de Leon.
Restoration of the Medici to power in Florence.
Birth of Tintoretto (d. 1594).

1513.
Discovery of the Pacific Ocean by Vasco Nunez de Balboa.
Beginning of the ministry of Wolsey in England.
Invasion of France by Henry VIII. of England, and his
victory in the Battle of the Spurs.
War of the Scots and English and defeat of
the Scots at Flodden.
Peasant insurrection of the Kurucs in Hungary.
Complete expulsion of the French from Italy.
Death of Pope Julius II. and election of the Medicean, Leo X.

1515.
Death of Louis XII., king of France, and accession of
Francis I.; his invasion of Italy, victory over the Swiss
at Marignano, and occupation of Milan.
Death of Ladislaus II., king of Hungary and of Bohemia,
and succession of his son. Louis II., on both thrones.
Birth of Saint Philip Neri (d. 1595).

1516.
Founding of the piratical power of the Barbarossas at Algiers.
Treaty and Concordat of Francis I. of France with the Pope,
guaranteeing to the former the duchy of Milan and securing
to him the duchies of Parma and Piacenza, and taking away
the liberties of the Gallican Church.
Appointment of Las Casas Protector of the Indians by
Cardinal Ximenes.
Publication of the "Utopia" of Sir Thomas More.

1517.
Appearance of Tetzel in Germany, selling papal indulgences;
Luther's denunciation of the traffic;
posting of the Ninety-five Theses on the
church-door at Wittenberg.
Preaching of reformed doctrines at Zurich by Zwingli.
Execution of Balboa by Pedrarias Davila, in the colony
of Darien.
Discovery of Yucatan by Cordova.
Birth of Camoëns [Uncertain date] (d. 1579).

1519.
Landing of Cortes in Mexico and advance to the capital.
Sailing of Magellan on his voyage of circumnavigation.
Luther's disputation with Eck.
Death of the Emperor Maximilian and election of his
grandson, Charles V., already sovereign of Spain, the Two
Sicilies, the Netherlands, and the Austrian possessions.
Cession of the Austrian sovereignty by Charles V. to his
brother Ferdinand.
Discovery of the mouth of the Mississippi by Garay.

1520.
Long battle of Cortés with the Aztecs in the city of Mexico;
death of Montezuma;
retreat of the Spaniards.
Rebellion of the Holy Junta in Spain.
Birth of William Cecil, Lord Burleigh (d. 1598).

1521.
Siege and conquest of the Mexican capital by Cortés
and the Spaniards.
Conquest of Belgrade by the Turks.
Promulgation of the first of the edicts of
Charles V. against heresy in the

{3833}

Netherlands, called Placards.
Excommunication of Luther by the Pope;
his appearance before the Diet at Worms;
his abduction by friends and concealment at Wartburg.

1522.
Appointment of Cortés to be Governor, Captain-General,
and Chief Justice of New Spain (Mexico).
Conquest of Rhodes by the Turks from the
Knights of St. John.
Election of Pope Adrian VI.

1523.
Treason of the Constable of Bourbon, escaping from France
to take command of the Imperial army.
Abrogation of the mass and image worship at Zurich.
Organization of the reformed Church in northern Germany.
Election of Pope Clement VII.
Publication of Lord Berner's translation of Froissart.
Publication of Luther's translation of the New Testament.

1524.
Voyage of Verrazano, in the service of France,
to the North American coast.
Death of the Chevalier Bayard in battle with the
imperialists under Bourbon.
Invasion of Italy by Francis I. of France;
Outbreak of the Peasants' War, in Thuringia.

1525.
Bloody suppression of the Peasants' revolt, in Germany,
and execution of Münzer.
Battle of Pavia;
defeat and captivity of Francis I. of France.
Marriage of Luther to Catherine Bora.
Protestant League of Torgau.

1526.
Great defeat of the Hungarians by the Turks at Mohacs and
death of King Louis II.
Election of John Zapolya to the vacant throne of Hungary,
and rival election of Ferdinand of Austria.
Treaty of Madrid, for the release of Francis I.
from his captivity, and its perfidious repudiation by the
king of France when free.
Victory of Babar the Mongol at Panipat in India.
Printing (at Worms) of Tyndale's English version of the
New Testament.

1527.
Expulsion of Zapolya from Hungary by Ferdinand,
archduke of Austria, who wins the Hungarian crown.
Capture and sack of Rome by the Spanish and German
imperialists, commanded by the Constable Bourbon.
The republic restored in Florence by a popular rising.

1528.
Alliance of John Zapolya, king of Hungary, with the Turkish
sultan Solyman, against his rival, Ferdinand of Austria.
Deliverance of Genoa from the French by Andrea Doria.
Marriage of Marguerite d'Angoulême, sister of Francis I.
of France, to the king of Navarre.
Birth of Paul Veronese (d. 1588).

1529.
Fall of Wolsey from power in England.
Unsuccessful siege of Vienna by the Turkish sultan, Solyman.
Siege of Florence by the imperialists;
surrender of the city and restoration of the Medici.
Peace of Cambrai, or the Ladies' Peace, between Francis I.
of France and the Emperor Charles V.
Protest of the German reformers (against action of the
Diet of Spires) which caused them to be called Protestants.

1530.
German Diet at Augsburg;
formulation of the Protestant Confession of Faith;
the condemnatory Augsburg Decree;
formation of the Protestant League of Smalkalde.
Cession of Malta by the Emperor to the
Knights Hospitallers of St. John.
Siege of Buda by the Austrians.

1531.
Breach of Henry VIII. with the Pope on the question of
the annulling of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon.

1532.
Religious peace, with freedom of worship, restored in
Germany by the Pacification of Nuremberg.
Conquest of Peru by Pizarro.

1533.
Annulment of the marriage of Henry VIII. to Catherine of
Aragon by Cranmer;
marriage of the English king to Anne Boleyn.
Murder of the Ynca, Atahualpa, by Pizarro.
Birth of Montaigne (d. 1592).

1534.
First voyage of Jacques Cartier, to the St. Lawrence.
The Anabaptist seizure of the city of Munster.
Passage by the English Parliament of the Act of Supremacy,
establishing independence of Rome in the English Church.
Beginning of fierce persecution of the reformers in France.
Election of Pope Paul III.

1535.
Expedition of Charles V. against Tunis.
Execution of Sir Thomas More in England.
Suppression of the English monasteries.
Establishing of Protestantism in Geneva.
Printing of Coverdale's English version of the Bible.
Second voyage of Jacques Cartier and exploration of the
St. Lawrence to Montreal.

1536. Trial and execution of Anne Boleyn,
and marriage of Henry VIII. to Jane Seymour.
Martyrdom of Tyndale.
Renewed war between Charles V. and Francis I.
Publication of the "Institutions" of Calvin.

1537.
Death in childbed of Jane Seymour, the English queen.
Brief of Pope Paul III. forbidding further enslavement
of Indians in America.

1538.
Treaty of Peace between Charles V. and Francis I.
Formation of the Holy League of the Catholic
Princes of Germany.
Birth of Cardinal Borromeo (d. 1584).

1539.
Enactment of the Bill of the Six Articles in England.
Landing of Hernando de Soto in Florida and beginning
of his explorations.
Revolt of Ghent against the exactions of
the Emperor Charles V.