Chapter IV: , VII (154)

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1863 (AUGUST: MISSOURI-KANSAS).

LAYBACH, Congress of.

See VERONA, CONGRESS OF.

LAZARISTS, The.

"The Priests of the Missions, or the Lazarists ['sometimes
called the Vincentian Congregation'], … have not
unfrequently done very essential service to Christianity."
Their Society was founded in 1624 by St. Vincent de Paul, "at
the so-called Priory of St. Lazarus in Paris, whence the name
Lazarists. … Besides their mission-labours, they took
complete charge, in many instances, of ecclesiastical
seminaries, which, in obedience to the instruction of the
Council of Trent, had been established in the various
dioceses, and even at this day many of these institutions are
under their direction. In the year 1642 these devoted priests
were to be seen in Italy, and not long after were sent to
Algiers, to Tunis, to Madagascar, and to Poland."

_J. Alzog
Manual of Universal Church History,
volume 3, pages 463-465._

ALSO IN:
_H. L. S. Lear,
Priestly Life in France,
chapter 5._

LAZICA. LAZIC WAR.

"Lazica, the ancient Colchis and the modern Mingrelia and
Imeritia, bordered upon the Black Sea." From A. D. 522 to 541
the little kingdom was a dependency of Rome, its king, having
accepted Christianity, acknowledging himself a vassal of the
Roman or Byzantine emperor. But the Romans provoked a revolt
by their encroachments. "They seized and fortified a strong
post, called Petra, upon the coast, appointed a commandant who
claimed an authority as great as that of the Lazic king, and
established a commercial monopoly which pressed with great
severity upon the poorer classes of the Lazi." The Persians
were accordingly invited in to drive the Romans out, and did
so, reducing Lazica, for the time being, to the state of a
Persian province. But, in their turn, the Persians became
obnoxious, and the Lazi, making their peace with Rome, were
taken by the Emperor Justinian under his protection. "The
Lazic war, which commenced in consequence of this act of
Justinian's, continued almost without intermission for nine
years—from A. D. 549 to 557. Its details are related at great
length by Procopius and Agathias, who view the struggle as one
which vitally concerned the interests of their country.
According to them, Chosroës [the Persian king] was bent upon
holding Lazica in order to construct at the mouth of the
Phasis a great naval station and arsenal, from which his
fleets might issue to command the commerce or ravage the
shores of the Black Sea." The Persians in the end withdrew
from Lazica, but the Romans, by treaty, paid them an annual
tribute for their possession of the country.

_G. Rawlinson,
Seventh Great Monarchy,
chapter 20._

ALSO IN:
_J. Bury,
Later Roman Empire,
book 4, chapter 9 (volume 1)._

See, also, PERSIA: A. D. 226-627.

LAZZI, The.

See LÆTI.

LEAGUE, The Achaian.

See GREECE: B.C. 280-146.

LEAGUE, The Anti-Corn-Law.

See TARIFF LEGISLATION (ENGLAND):
A. D. 1836-1839; and 1845-1846.

LEAGUE, The Borromean or Golden.

See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1579-1630.

LEAGUE, The Catholic, in France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1576-1585, and after.

LEAGUE, The first Catholic, in Germany.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1530-1531.

LEAGUE, The second Catholic, in Germany.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1608-1618.

LEAGUE, The Cobblers'.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1524-1525.

LEAGUE, The Delian.

See GREECE: B. C. 478-477.

LEAGUE, The Hanseatic.

See HANSA TOWNS.

LEAGUE, The Holy, of the Catholic party in the Religious Wars of France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1576-1585, to 1593-1598.

LEAGUE, The Holy, of German Catholic princes.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1533-1546.

LEAGUE, The Holy, of Pope Clement VII. against Charles V.

See ITALY: A. D. 1523-1527.

LEAGUE, The Holy, of Pope Innocent XI., the Emperor, Venice, Poland and Russia against the Turks.

See TURKS: A. D. 1684-1696.

LEAGUE, The Holy, of Pope Julius II. against Louis XII. of France.

See ITALY: A. D. 1510-1513.

LEAGUE, The Holy, of Spain, Venice and the Pope against the Turks.

See TURKS: A. D. 1566-1571.

LEAGUE, The Irish Land.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1873-1879; and 1881-1882.

LEAGUE, The Swabian.

See LANDFRIEDE, &c.

LEAGUE, The Union.

See UNION LEAGUE.

LEAGUE AND COVENANT, The solemn.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1643 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).

LEAGUE OF AUGSBURG.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1686.

LEAGUE OF CAMBRAI.

See VENICE: A. D. 1508-1509.

LEAGUE OF LOMBARDY.

See ITALY: A. D. 1166-1167.

LEAGUE OF POOR CONRAD, The.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1524-1525.

LEAGUE OF RATISBON.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1522-1525.

LEAGUE OF SMALKALDE, The.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1530-1532.

LEAGUE OF THE GUEUX.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1562-1566.

LEAGUE OF THE PRINCES.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1485-1487.

LEAGUE OF THE PUBLIC WEAL.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1461-1468; also, 1453-1461.

LEAGUE OF THE RHINE.

See RHINE LEAGUE.

LEAGUE OF TORGAU.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1525-1529.

LEAGUES, The Grey.

See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1396-1499.

LE BOURGET, Sortie of (1870).

See FRANCE: A. D.1870-1871.

LECHFELD, OR BATTLE ON THE LECH (A. D. 955).

See HUNGARIANS: A. D. 935-955.

{1996}

LECHFELD, OR BATTLE ON THE LECH (1632.)

See GERMANY: A. D. 1631-1632.

LECOMPTON CONSTITUTION, The.

See KANSAS: A. D. 1854-1859.

LEE, General Charles, and the War of the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1775 (MAY-AUGUST);
1776 (JUNE), (AUGUST); and 1778 (JUNE).

LEE, General Henry ("Light Horse Harry"), and the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: 1780-1781.

LEE, Richard Henry,
And the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1776 (JANUARY-JUNE), (JULY).

LEE, Richard Henry,
Opposition to the Federal Constitution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1787-1789.

LEE, General Robert E.
Campaign in West Virginia.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1861 (AUGUST-DECEMBER: WEST VIRGINIA).

LEE, General Robert E.,
Command on the Peninsula.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (JUNE: VIRGINIA),
and (JULY-AUGUST: VIRGINIA).

LEE, General Robert E.
Campaign against Pope.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (JULY-AUGUST: VIRGINIA);
(AUGUST: VIRGINIA); and (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER: VIRGINIA).

LEE, General Robert E.
First invasion of Maryland.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (SEPTEMBER: MARYLAND).

LEE, General Robert E.
Defeat of Hooker.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1863 (APRIL-MAY: VIRGINIA).

LEE, General Robert E.
The second movement of invasion.
Gettysburg and after.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1863 (JUNE: VIRGINIA),
and (JUNE-JULY: PENNSYLVANIA);
also (JULY-NOVEMBER: VIRGINIA).

LEE, General Robert E.
Last Campaigns.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (MAY: VIRGINIA), to 1865 (APRIL: VIRGINIA).

LEEDS, Battle at (1643).

Leeds, occupied by the Royalists, under Sir William Savile,
was taken by Sir Thomas Fairfax, after hard fighting, on the
23d of January, 1643.

_C. R. Markham,
Life of the Great Lord Fairfax,
chapter 9._

LEESBURG, OR BALL'S BLUFF, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1861 (OCTOBER: VIRGINIA).

LEEWARD ISLANDS, The.

See WEST INDIES.

LEFÈVRE, Jacques, and the Reformation in France.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1521-1535.

LEFT, The.
Left Center, The.

See RIGHT, &c.

LEGATE.

This was the title given to the lieutenant-general or
associate chosen by a Roman commander or provincial governor
to be his second-in-authority.

_W. Ramsay,
Manual of Roman Antiquity,
chapter 12._

LEGES JULIÆ, LEGES SEMPRONIÆ, &c.

See JULIAN LAWS; SEMPRONIAN LAWS, &c.

LEGION, The Roman.

"The original order of a Roman army was, as it seems, similar
to the phalanx: but the long unbroken line had been divided
into smaller detachments since, and perhaps by Camillus. The
long wars in the Samnite mountains naturally caused the Romans
to retain and to perfect this organisation, which made their
army more movable and pliable, without preventing the separate
bodies quickly combining and forming in one line. The legion
now [at the time of the war with Pyrrhus, B. C. 280] consisted
of thirty companies (called 'manipuli') of the average
strength of a hundred men, which were arranged in three lines
of ten manipuli each, like the black squares on a chessboard.
The manipuli of the first line consisted of the youngest
troops, called 'hastati'; those of the second line, called
'principes,' were men in the full vigour of life; those of the
third, the 'triarii,' formed a reserve of older soldiers, and
were numerically only half as strong as the other two lines.
The tactic order of the manipuli enabled the general to move
the 'principes' forward into the intervals of the 'hastati,'
or to withdraw the 'hastati ' back into the intervals of the
'principes,' the 'triarii' being kept as a reserve. … The
light troops were armed with javelins, and retired behind the
solid mass of the manipuli as soon as they had discharged
their weapons in front of the line, at the beginning of the
combat."

_W. Ihne,
History of Rome,
book 3, chapter 16 (volume 1)._

"The legions, as they are described by Polybius, in the time
of the Punic wars, differed very materially from those which
achieved the victories of Cæsar, or defended the monarchy of
Hadrian and the Antonines. The constitution of the Imperial
legion may be described in a few words. The heavy-armed
infantry, which composed its principal strength, was divided
into ten cohorts, and fifty-five companies, under the orders
of a correspondent number of tribunes and centurions. The
first cohort, which always claimed the post of honour and the
custody of the eagle, was formed of 1,105 soldiers, the most
approved for valour and fidelity. The remaining nine cohorts
consisted each of 555; and the whole body of legionary
infantry amounted to 6,100 men. … The legion was usually
drawn up eight deep, and the regular distance of three feet
was left between the files as well as ranks. … The cavalry,
without which the force of the legion would have remained
imperfect, was divided into ten troops or squadrons; the
first, as the companion of the first cohort, consisted of 132
men; whilst each of the other nine amounted only to 66."

_E. Gibbon
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 1._

ALSO IN:
_W. Ramsay,
Manual of Roman Antiquity,
chapter 12._

LEGION OF HONOR, Institution of the.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1801-1803.

LEGITIMISTS AND ORLEANISTS.

The partisans of Bourbon monarchy in France became divided
into two factions by the revolution of 1830, which deposed
Charles X. and raised Louis Philippe to the throne. Charles
X., brother of Louis XVI. and Louis XVIII., was in the direct
line of royal descent, from Louis XIV. Louis Philippe, Duke of
Orleans, who displaced him, belonged to a younger branch of
the Bourbon family, descending from the brother of Louis XIV.,
Philippe, Duke of Orleans, father of the Regent Orleans. Louis
Philippe, in his turn, was expelled from the throne in 1848,
and the crown, after that event, became an object of claim in
both families. The claim supported by the Legitimists was
extinguished in 1883 by the death of the childless Comte de
Chambord, grandson of Charles X. The Orleanist claim is still
maintained (1894) by the Comte de Paris, grandson of Louis
Philippe.

LEGNANO, Battle of (1176).

See ITALY: A. D. 1174-1183.

LEICESTER, The Earl of, in the Netherlands.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1585-1586; and 1587-1588.

LEINSTER TRIBUTE, The.

See BOARIAN TRIBUTE.

{1997}

----------LEIPSIC: Start----------

LEIPSIC: A. D. 1631.
Battle of Breitenfeld, before the city.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1631.

LEIPSIC: A. D. 1642.
Second Battle of Breitenfeld.
Surrender of the city to the Swedes.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1640-1645.

LEIPSIC: A. D. 1813.
Occupied by the Prussians and Russians.
Regained by the French.
The great "Battle of the Nations."

See GERMANY: A. D. 1812-1813;
1813 (APRIL-MAY), (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER), and (OCTOBER).

----------LEIPSIC: End----------

LEIPSIC, University of.

See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL: GERMANY.

LEISLER'S REVOLUTION.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1689-1691.

LEITH, The Concordat of.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1572.

LEKHS, The.

See LYGIANS.

LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: AMERICA: A. D. 1884-1891.

LELANTIAN FIELDS. LELANTIAN FEUD.

See CHALCIS AND ERETRIA; and EUBŒA.

LELEGES, The.

"The Greeks beyond the sea [Ionian Greeks of Asia Minor] were
however not merely designated in groups, according to the
countries out of which they came, but certain collective names
existed for them—such as that of Javan in the East. … Among
all these names the most widely spread was that of the
Leleges, which the ancients themselves designated as that of a
mixed people. In Lycia, in Miletus, and in the Troad these
Leleges had their home; in other words, on the whole extent of
coast in which we have recognized the primitive seats of the
people of Ionic Greeks."

_E. Curtius,
History of Greece,
book 1, chapter 2._

See, also, DORIANS AND IONIANS.

LELIAERDS.

In the mediæval annals of the Flemish people, the partisans of
the French are called "Leliaerds," from "lelie," the Flemish
for lily.

_J. Hutton,
James and Philip van Arteveld,
page 32, foot-note._

LE MANS: Defeat of the Vendéans.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JULY-DECEMBER).

LE MANS, Battle of (1871).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870-1871.

LEMNOS.

One of the larger islands in the northern part of the Ægean
Sea, lying opposite the Trojan coast. It was anciently
associated with Samothrace and Imbros in the mysterious
worship of the Cabeiri.

LEMOVICES, The.

The Lemovices were a tribe of Gauls who occupied, in Cæsar's
time, the territory afterwards known as the Limousin
—department of Upper Vienne and parts adjoining.

_Napoleon III.,
History of Cæsar,
book 3, chapter 2, foot-note._

The city of Limoges derived its existence and its name from
the Lemovices.

LEMOVII, The.

A tribe in ancient Germany whose territory, on the Baltic
coast, probably in the neighborhood of Danzig, bordered on
that of the Gothones.

_Church and Brodribb,
Geographical Notes to the Germany of Tacitus._

LENAPE, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: DELAWARES.

LENS, Siege and battle (1647-1648).

See NETHERLANDS (SPANISH PROVINCES): A. D. 1647-1648.

LENTIENSES, The.

See ALEMANNI: A. D. 213.

LEO I., Roman Emperor (Eastern), A. D. 457-474.

Leo II., Pope, 682-683.

Leo II., Roman Emperor (Eastern), 474.

Leo III., Pope, 795-816.

Leo III. (called The Isaurian),
Emperor in the East (Byzantine, or Greek),717-741.

Leo IV., Pope, 847-855.

Leo IV., Emperor in the East
(Byzantine, or Greek), 775-780.

Leo V., Pope, 903, October to December.

Leo V., Emperor in the East
(Byzantine, or Greek), 813-820.

Leo VI., Pope, 928-929.

Leo VI., Emperor in the East
(Byzantine, or Greek), 886-911.

Leo VII., Pope, 936-939.

Leo VIII., Anti-pope, 963-965.

Leo IX., Pope, 1049-1054.

Leo X., Pope, 1513-1521.

Leo XI., Pope, 1605, April 2-27.

Leo XII., Pope, 1823-1829.

Leo XIII., Pope, 1878.

LEOBEN, Preliminary treaty of (1797).

See FRANCE: A.D. 1796-1797 (OCTOBER-APRIL).

LEODIS (WEREGILD).

See GRAF.

LEON, Ponce de, and his quest.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1512.

----------LEON: Start--------

LEON,
Origin of the name of the city and kingdom.

"This name Legio or Leon, so long borne by a province and by
its chief city in Spain, is derived from the old Roman 'Regnum
Legionis' (Kingdom of the Legion)."

_H. Coppée,
Conquest of Spain by the Arab-Moors,
book 5, chapter 1 (volume 1)._

LEON:
Origin of the kingdom.

See SPAIN: A. D. 713-910.

LEON:
Union of the kingdom with Castile.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1026-1230; and 1212-1238.

----------LEON: End--------

LEONIDAS AT THERMOPYLÆ.

See GREECE: B. C. 480;
and ATHENS: B. C. 480-479.

LEONINE CITY, The

See VATICAN.

LEONTINI.
The Leontine War.

See SYRACUSE: B. C. 415-413.

LEONTIUS, Roman Emperor (Eastern), A. D. 695-698.

LEOPOLD I.,
Germanic Emperor, A. D. 1658-1705;
King of Hungary, 1655-1705:
King of Bohemia, 1657-1705.

Leopold I., King of Belgium, 1831-1865.

Leopold II., Germanic Emperor, and King of Hungary and
Bohemia, 1790-1792.

Leopold II., King of Belgium, 1865.

LEPANTO, Naval Battle of (1571).

See TURKS: A. D. 1566-1571.

LEPERS AND JEWS, Persecution of.

See JEWS: A. D. 1321.

LIPIDUS, Revolutionary attempt of.

See ROME: B. C. 78-68.

LEPTA.

See TALENT.

LEPTIS MAGNA.

"The city of Leptis Magna, originally a Phœnician colony, was
the capital of this part of the province [the tract of
north-African coast between the Lesser and the Greater
Syrtes], and held much the same prominent position as that of
Tripoli at the present day. The only other towns in the region
of the Syrtes, as it was sometimes called, were Œa, on the
site of the modern Tripoli, and Sabrata, the ruins of which
are still visible at a place called Tripoli Vecchio. The three
together gave the name of the Tripolis of Africa to this
region, as distinguished from the Pentapolis of Cyrenaïca.
Hence the modern appellation."

_E. H. Bunbury,
History of Ancient Geography,
chapter 20, section 1, footnote (volume 2)._

See, also, CARTHAGE, THE DOMINION OF.

{1998}

LERIDA: B. C. 49.
Cæsar's success against the Pompeians.

See ROME: B. C. 49.

LERIDA: A. D. 1644-1646,
Sieges and battle.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1644-1646.

LERIDA: A. D. 1707.
Stormed and sacked by the French and Spaniards.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1707.

----------LESBOS: Start--------

LESBOS.

The largest of the islands of the Ægean, lying south of the
Troad, great part of which it once controlled, was
particularly distinguished in the early literary history of
ancient Greece, having produced what is called "the Æolian
school" of lyric poetry. Alcæus, Sappho, Terpander and Arion
were poets who sprang from Lesbos. The island was one of the
important colonies of what was known as the Æolic migration,
but became subject to Athens after the Persian War. In the
fourth year of the Peloponnesian War its chief city, Mitylene
(which afterwards gave its name to the entire island), seized
the opportunity to revolt. The siege and reduction of Mytilene
by the Athenians was one of the exciting incidents of that
struggle.

_Thucydides,
History,
book 3._

ALSO IN:
_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapters 14 and 50._

See, also, ASIA MINOR: THE GREEK COLONIES;
and GREECE: B. C. 429-427.

LESBOS: B. C. 412.
Revolt from Athens.

See GREECE: B. C. 413-412.

----------LESBOS: End--------

LESCHE, The.

The clubs of Sparta and Athens formed an important feature of
the life of Greece. In every Grecian community there was a
place of resort called the Lesche. In Sparta it was peculiarly
the resort of old men, who assembled round a blazing fire in
winter, and were listened to with profound respect by their
juniors. These retreats were numerous in Athens.

_C. O. Müller,
History and Antiquities of the Doric race,
volume 2, page 396._

"The proper home of the Spartan art of speech, the original
source of so many Spartan jokes current over all Greece, was
the Lesche, the place of meeting for men at leisure, near the
public drilling-grounds, where they met in small bands, and
exchanged merry talk."

_E. Curtius,
History of Greece,
volume 1, page 220 (American edition)._

LESCO V.,
Duke of Poland, A. D. 1194-1227.

Lesco VI., Duke of Poland, 1279-1289.

LESE-MAJESTY.

A term in English law signifying treason, borrowed from the
Romans. The contriving, or counselling or consenting to the
king's death, or sedition against the king, are included in
the crime of "lese-majesty."

_W. Stubbs,
Constitutional History of England,
chapter 21, section 786._

LE TELLIER, and the suppression of Port Royal.

See PORT ROYAL AND THE JANSENISTS: A. D. 1702-1715.

LETTER OF MAJESTY, The.

See BOHEMIA. A. D. 1611-1618.

LETTERS OF MARQUE.

See PRIVATEERS.

LETTRE DE CACHET.

"In French history, a letter or order under seal; a private
letter of state: a name given especially to a written order
proceeding from and signed by the king, and countersigned by a
secretary of state, and used at first as an occasional means
of delaying the course of justice, but later, in the 17th and
18th centuries, as a warrant for the imprisonment without
trial of a person obnoxious for any reason to the government,
often for life or for a long period, and on frivolous
pretexts. Lettres de cachet were abolished at the Revolution."

_Century Dictionary._

"The minister used to give generously blank lettres-de-cachet
to the intendants, the bishops, and people in the
administration. Saint-Florentin, alone, gave away as many as
50,000. Never had man's dearest treasure, liberty, been more
lavishly squandered. These letters were the object of a
profitable traffic; they were sold to fathers who wanted to
get rid of their sons, and given to pretty women who were
inconvenienced by their husbands. This last cause of
imprisonment was one of the most prominent. And all through
good-nature. The king [Louis XV.] was too good to refuse a
lettre-de-cachet to a great lord. The intendant was too
good-natured not to grant one at a lady's request. The
government clerks, the mistresses of the clerks, and the
friends of these mistresses, through good-nature, civility, or
mere politeness, obtained, gave, or lent, those terrible
orders by which a man was buried alive. Buried;—for such was
the carelessness and levity of those amiable clerks,—almost
all nobles, fashionable men, all occupied with their
pleasures,—that they never had the time, when once the poor
fellow was shut up, to think of his position."

_J. Michelet,
Historical View of the French Revolution,
introduction, part 2, section 9._

LETTS.

See LITHUANIANS.

LEUCADIA, LEUCAS.

Originally a peninsula of Acarnania, on the western coast of
Greece, but converted into an island by the Corinthians, who
cut a canal across its narrow neck. Its chief town, of the
same name, was at one time the meeting place of the Acarnanian
League. The high promontory at the south-western extremity of
the island was celebrated for the temple of Apollo which
crowned it, and as being the scene of the story of Sappho's
suicidal leap from the Leucadian rock.

LEUCÆ, Battle of.

The kingdom of Pergamum having been bequeathed to the Romans
by its last king, Attalus, a certain Aristonicus attempted to
resist their possession of it, and Crassus, one of the consuls
of B. C. 131 was sent against him. But Crassus had no success
and was finally defeated and slain, near Leucæ. Aristonicus
surrendered soon afterwards to M. Perperna and the war in
Pergamum was ended.

_G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 1, chapter 14._

LEUCATE, Siege and Battle (1637).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1637-1640.

LEUCI, The.

A tribe in Belgic Gaul which occupied the southern part of the
modern department of the Meuse, the greater part of the
Meurthe, and the department of the Vosges.

_Napoleon III.,
History of Cæsar,
book 3, chapter 2, footnote (volume 2)._

LEUCTRA, Battle of (B. C. 371).

See GREECE: B. C. 379-371.

LEUD, OR LIDUS, The.

See SLAVERY, MEDIÆVAL: GERMANY.

LEUDES.

"The Frankish warriors, but particularly the leaders, were
called 'leudes,' from the Teutonic word 'leude,' 'liude,'
'leute,' people, as some think (Thierry, Lettres sur l'Hist.
de Franc, p. 130). In the Scandinavian dialects, 'lide' means
a warrior … ; and in the Kymric also 'lwydd' means an army
or war-band. … It was not a title of dignity, as every free
fighter among the Franks was a leud, but in process of time
the term seems to have been restricted to the most prominent
and powerful warriors alone."

_P. Godwin,
History of France: Ancient Gaul,
book 3, chapter 12, foot-note._

{1999}

LEUGA, The.

"The roads in the whole Roman empire were measured and marked
according to the unit of the Roman mile (1.48 kilometer), and
up to the end of the second century this applied also to those
[the Gallic] provinces. But from Severus onward its place was
taken in the three Gauls and the two Germanies by a mile
correlated no doubt to the Roman, but yet different and with a
Gallic name, the 'leuga' (2.222 kilomètres), equal to one and
a half Roman miles. … The double 'leuga,' the German
'rasta,' … corresponds to the French 'lieue.'"

_T. Mommsen,
History of the Romans,
book 8, chapter 3._

LEUKAS.

See KORKYRA.

LEUKOPETRA, Battle of (B. C. 146).

See GREECE: B. C. 280-146.

LEUTHEN, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1757 (JULY-DECEMBER).

LEVELLERS, The.

"Especially popular among the soldiers [of the Parliamentary
Army, England, A. D. 1647-48], and keeping up their excitement
more particularly against the House of Lords, were the
pamphlets that came from John Lilburne, and an associate of
his named Richard Overton. … These were the pamphlets …
which … were popular with the common soldiers of the
Parliamentary Army, and nursed that especial form of the
democratic passion among them which longed to sweep away the
House of Lords and see England governed by a single
Representative House. Baxter, who reports this growth of
democratic opinion in the Army from his own observation,
distinctly recognises in it the beginnings of that rough
ultra-Republican party which afterwards became formidable
under the name of The Levellers."

_D. Masson,
Life of John Milton,
volume 3, book 4, chapter 1._

"They [the Levellers] had a vision of a pure and patriotic
Parliament, accurately representing the people, yet carrying
out a political programme incomprehensible to nine-tenths of
the nation. This Parliament was to represent all legitimate
varieties of thought, and was yet to act together as one man.
The necessity for a Council of State they therefore entirely
denied; and they denounced it as a new tyranny. The excise
they condemned as an obstruction to trade. They would have no
man compelled to fight, unless he felt free in his own
conscience to do so. They appealed to the law of nature, and
found their interpretation of it carrying them further and
further away from English traditions and habits, whether of
Church or State." A mutiny of the Levellers in the army, which
broke out in April and May, 1640, was put down with stern
vigor by Cromwell and Fairfax, several of the leaders being
executed.

_J. A. Picton,
Oliver Cromwell,
chapter 17._

LEWES, Battle of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1216-1274.

LEWIS AND CLARK'S EXPEDITION.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1804-1801.

LEXINGTON, Massachusetts: A. D. 1775.
The beginning of the War of the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775 (APRIL).

----------LEXINGTON: Start--------

LEXINGTON, MISSOURI, Siege of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1861 (JULY-SEPTEMBER: MISSOURI).

LEXINGTON, MISSOURI: Battle at.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (MARCH-OCTOBER: ARKANSAS-MISSOURI).

----------LEXINGTON: End--------

LEXOVII, The.

The Lexovii were one of the tribes of northwestern Gaul, in
the time of Cæsar. Their position is indicated and their name,
in a modified form, preserved by the town of Lisieux between
Caen and Evreux.

_G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 4, chapter 6._

----------LEYDEN: Start--------

LEYDEN: A. D. 1574.
Siege by the Spaniards.
Relief by the flooding of the land.
The founding of the University.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1573-1574;
and EDUCATION, RENAISSANCE: NETHERLANDS.

LEYDEN: A. D. 1609-1620.
The Sojourn of the Pilgrim Fathers.

See INDEPENDENTS: A. D. 1604-1617.

----------LEYDEN: End--------

LHASSA, the seat of the Grand Lama.

See LAMAS.

LIA-FAIL, The.

"The Tuatha-de-Danaan [the people who preceded the Milesians
in colonizing Ireland, according to the fabulous Irish
histories] brought with them from Scandinavia, among other
extraordinary things, three marvellous treasures, the
Lia-Fail, or Stone of Destiny, the Sorcerer's Spear, and the
Magic Caldron, all celebrated in the old Irish romances. The
Lia-Fail possessed the remarkable property of making a strange
noise and becoming wonderfully disturbed, whenever a monarch
of Ireland of pure blood was crowned, and a prophecy was
attached to it, that whatever country possessed it should be
ruled over by a king of Irish descent, and enjoy uninterrupted
success and prosperity. It was preserved at Cashel, where the
kings of Munster were crowned upon it. According to some
writers it was afterwards kept at the Hill of Tara, where it
remained until it was carried to Scotland by an Irish prince,
who succeeded to the crown of that country. There it was
preserved at Scone, until Edward I. carried it away into
England, and placed it under the seat of the coronation chair
of our kings, where it still remains. … It seems to be the
opinion of some modern antiquarians that a pillar stone still
remaining at the Hill of Tara is the true Lia-Fail, which in
that case was not carried to Scotland."

_T. Wright,
History of Ireland,
book 1, chapter 2, and foot-note._

See, also, SCOTLAND: 8TH-9TH CENTURIES.

LIBBY PRISON.

See PRISONS AND PRISON-PENS, CONFEDERATE.

LIBERAL ARTS, The Seven.

See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL: SCHOLASTICISM.

LIBERAL REPUBLICAN PARTY.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1872.

LIBERAL UNIONISTS.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1885-1886.

LIBERI HOMINES.

See SLAVERY, MEDIÆVAL: ENGLAND.

LIBERIA, The founding of the Republic of.

See SLAVERY, NEGRO: A. D. 1816-1847.

LIBERTINES OF GENEVA, The.

The party which opposed Calvin's austere and arbitrary rule in
Geneva were called Libertines.

_F. P. Guizot,
John Calvin,
chapter 9-16._

LIBERTINI.

See INGENUI.

LIBERTY BELL, The.

See INDEPENDENCE HALL.

{2000}

LIBERTY BOYS.

The name by which the Sons of Liberty of the American
Revolution were familiarly known.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1765; NEW YORK: A. D. 1773-1774;
and LIBERTY TREE.

LIBERTY CAP.

"This emblem, like many similar ones received by the
revolutions from the hand of chance, was a mystery even to
those who wore it. It had been adopted [at Paris] for the
first time on the day of the triumph of the soldiers of
Châteauvieux [April 15, 1792, when 41 Swiss soldiers of the
regiment of Châteauvieux, condemned to the galleys for
participation in a dangerous mutiny of the garrison at Nancy
in 1790, but liberated in compliance with the demands of the
mob, were fêted as heroes by the Jacobins of Paris]. Some said
it was the coiffure of the galley-slaves, once infamous, but
glorious since it had covered the brows of these martyrs of
the insurrection; and they added that the people wished to
purify this head-dress from every stain by wearing it
themselves. Others only saw in it the Phrygian bonnet, a
symbol of freedom for slaves. The 'bonnet rouge' had from its
first appearance been the subject of dispute and dissension
amongst the Jacobins; the 'exaltés' wore it, whilst the
'modérés' yet abstained from adopting it." Robespierre and his
immediate followers opposed the "frivolity" of the "bonnet
rouge," and momentarily suppressed it in the Assembly. "But
even the voice of Robespierre, and the resolutions of the
Jacobins, could not arrest the outbreak of enthusiasm that had
placed the sign of 'avenging equality' ('l'égalité
vengeresse') on every head; and the evening of the day on
which it was repudiated at the Jacobins' saw it inaugurated at
all the theatres. The bust of Voltaire, the destroyer of
prejudice, was adorned with the Phrygian cap of liberty,
amidst the shouts of the spectators, whilst the cap and pike
became the uniform and weapon of the citizen soldier."

_A. de Lamartine,
History of the Girondists,
book 13 (volume 1)._

ALSO IN:
_H. M. Stephens,
History of the French Revolution,
volume 2, chapter 2._

LIBERTY GAP, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1863 (JUNE-JULY: TENNESSEE).

LIBERTY PARTY AND LIBERTY LEAGUE.

See SLAVERY, NEGRO: A. D. 1840-1847.

LIBERTY TREE AND LIBERTY HALL.

"Lafayette said, when in Boston, 'The world should never
forget the spot where once stood Liberty Tree, so famous in
your annals.' … The open space at the four corners of
Washington, Essex, and Boylston streets was once known as
Hanover Square, from the royal house of Hanover, and sometimes
as the Elm Neighborhood, from the magnificent elms with which
it was environed. It was one of the finest of these that
obtained the name of Liberty Tree, from its being used on the
first occasion of resistance to the obnoxious Stamp Act. …
At daybreak on the 14th August, 1765, nearly ten years before
active hostilities broke out, an effigy of Mr. Oliver, the
Stamp officer, and a boot, with the Devil peeping out of
it,—an allusion to Lord Bute,—was discovered hanging from
Liberty Tree. The images remained hanging all day, and were
visited by great numbers of people, both from the town and the
neighboring country. Business was almost suspended.
Lieutenant-Governor Hutchinson ordered the sheriff to take the
figures down, but he was obliged to admit that he dared not do
so. As the day closed in the effigies were taken down, placed
upon a bier, and, followed by several thousand people of every
class and condition," were borne through the city and then
burned, after which much riotous conduct on the part of the
crowd occurred. In 1766, when the repeal of the Stamp Act took
place, a large copper plate was fastened to the tree,
inscribed in golden characters:—'This tree was planted in the
year 1646, and pruned by order of the Sons of Liberty,
February 14th, 1766.' … The ground immediately about Liberty
Tree was popularly known as Liberty Hall. In August, 1767, a
flagstaff had been erected, which went through and extended
above its highest branches. A flag hoisted upon this staff was
the signal for the assembling of the Sons of Liberty. … In
August, 1775, the name of Liberty having become offensive to
the Tories and their British allies, the tree was cut down by
a party led by one Job Williams."

_S. A. Drake,
Old Landmarks of Boston,
chapter 14._

LIBERUM VETO, The.

See POLAND: A. D. 1578-1652.

LIBRA, The Roman.

The ancient Roman unit of weight was the libra, or pondus,
from which the modern names of the livre and pound are
derived. Its weight was equal to 5,015 Troy gr. or 325 grams,
and it was identical with the Greek-Asiatic mina."

_H. W. Chisholm,
Science of Weighing and Measuring,
chapter 2._

See, also, AS.

----------LIBRARIES: Start--------

LIBRARIES:
Ancient, Babylonia and Assyria.

"The Babylonians were … essentially a reading and writing
people. … Books were numerous and students were many. The
books were for the most part written upon clay [tablets] with
a wooden reed or metal stylus, for clay was cheap and
plentiful, and easily impressed with the wedge-shaped lines of
which the characters were composed. But besides clay, papyrus
and possibly also parchment were employed as writing
materials; at all events the papyrus is referred to in the
texts."

_A. H. Sayce,
Social Life among the Assyrians and Babylonians,
page 30._

"We must speak of the manner in which the tablet was formed.
Fine clay was selected, kneaded, and moulded into the shape of
the required tablet. One side was flat, and the other rounded.
The writing was then inscribed on both sides, holes were
pricked in the clay, and then it was baked. The holes allowed
the steam which was generated during the process of baking to
escape. It is thought that the clay used in some of the
tablets was not only well kneaded, but ground in some kind of
mill, for the texture of the clay is as fine as some of our
best modern pottery. The wedges appear to have been impressed
by a square headed instrument."

_E. A. W. Budge,
Babylonian Life and History,
p. 105._

{2001}

Assurbanipal, the Sardanapalus of the Greeks, was the greatest
and most celebrated of Assyrian monarchs. He was the principal
patron of Assyrian literature, and the greater part of the
grand library at Nineveh was written during his reign."

_G. Smith,
Assyrian Discoveries,
chapter 18._

"Assurbanipal is fond of old books, particularly of the old
sacred works. He collects the scattered specimens from the
chief cities of his empire, and even employs scribes in
Chaldea, Ourouk, Barsippa, and Babylon to copy for him the
tablets deposited in the temples. His principal library is at
Nineveh, in the palace which he built for himself upon the
banks of the Tigris, and which he has just finished
decorating. It contains more than thirty thousand tablets,
methodically classified and arranged in several rooms, with
detailed catalogues for convenient reference. Many of the
works are continued from tablet to tablet and form a series,
each bearing the first words of the text as its title. The
account of the creation, which begins with the phrase:
'Formerly, that which is above was not yet called the heaven,'
was entitled: 'Formerly, that which is above, No.1;'
'Formerly, that which is above, No.2;' and so on to the end.
Assurbanipal is not less proud of his love of letters than of
his political activity, and he is anxious that posterity
should know how much he has done for literature. His name is
inscribed upon every work in his library, ancient and modern.
'The palace of Assurbanipal, king of legions, king of
multitudes, king of Assyria, to whom the god Nebo and the
goddess Tasmetu have granted attentive ears and open eyes to
discover the writings of the scribes of my kingdom, whom the
kings my predecessors, have employed. In my respect for Nebo,
the god of intelligence, I have collected these tablets; I
have had them copied, I have marked them with my name, and I
have deposited them in my palace.' The library at Dur-Sarginu,
although not so rich as the one in Nineveh, is still fairly
well supplied."

_G. Maspéro,
Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria,
chapter 16._

Collections of inscribed tablets had been made by
Tiglath-Pileser II., king of Assyria, B. C. 745, who had
copied some historical inscriptions of his predecessors.
Sargon, the founder of the dynasty to which Assur-bani-pal
belonged, B. C. 722, had increased this library by adding a
collection of astrological and similar texts, and Sennacherib,
B. C. 705, had composed copies of the Assyrian canon, short
histories, and miscellaneous inscriptions, to add to the
collection. Sennacherib also moved the library from Calah, its
original seat, to Nineveh, the capital. Esarhaddon, B. C. 681,
added numerous historical and mythological texts. All the
inscriptions of the former kings were, however, nothing
compared to those written during the reign of Assur-bani-pal.
Thousands of inscribed tablets from all places, and on every
variety of subject, were collected, and copied, and stored in
the library of the palace at Nineveh during his reign; and by
his statements they appear to have been intended for the
inspection of the people, and to spread learning among the
Assyrians. Among these tablets one class consisted of
historical texts, some the histories of the former kings of
Assyria, and others copies of royal inscriptions from various
other places. Similar to these were the copies of treaties,
despatches, and orders from the king to his generals and
ministers, a large number of which formed part of the library.
There was a large collection of letters of all sorts, from
despatches to the king on the one hand, down to private notes
on the other. Geography found a place among the sciences, and
was represented by lists of countries, towns, rivers, and
mountains, notices of the position, products, and character of
districts, &c., &c. There were tables giving accounts of the
law and legal decisions, and tablets with contracts, loans,
deeds of sale and barter, &c. There were lists of tribute and
taxes, accounts of property in the various cities, forming
some approach to a census and general account of the empire.
One large and important section of the library was devoted to
legends of various sorts, many of which were borrowed from
other countries. Among these were the legends of the hero
Izdubar, perhaps the Nimrod of the Bible. One of these legends
gives the Chaldean account of the flood, others of this
description give various fables and stories of evil spirits.
The mythological part of the library embraced lists of the
gods, their titles, attributes, temples, &c., hymns in praise
of various deities, prayers to be used by different classes of
men to different gods, and under various circumstances, as
during eclipses or calamities, on setting out for a campaign,
&c., &e. Astronomy was represented by various tablets and
works on the appearance and motions of the heavens, and the
various celestial phenomena. Astrology was closely connected
with Astronomy, and formed a numerous class of subjects and
inscriptions. An interesting division was formed by the works
on natural history; these consisted of lists of animals,
birds, reptiles, trees, grasses, stones, &c., &c., arranged in
classes, according to their character and affinities as then
understood, lists of minerals and their uses, lists of foods,
&c., &c. Mathematics and arithmetic were found, including
square and cube root, the working out of problems, &c., &c.
Much of the learning on these tablets was borrowed from the
Chaldeans and the people of Babylon, and had originally been
written in a different language and style of writing, hence it
was necessary to have translations and explanations of many of
these; and in order to make their meaning clear, grammars,
dictionaries, and lexicons were prepared, embracing the
principal features of the two languages involved, and enabling
the Assyrians to study the older inscriptions. Such are some
of the principal features of the grand Assyrian library, which
Assur-bani-pal established at Nineveh, and which probably
numbered over 10,000 clay documents."

_George Smith,
Ancient History from the Monuments: Assyria,
pages 188-191._

"It is now [1882] more than thirty years since Sir Henry
Layard, passing through one of the doorways of the partially
explored palace in the mound of Konyunjik, guarded by
sculptured fish gods, stood for the first time in the double
chambers containing a large portion of the remains of the
immense library collected by Assurbannipal, King of Nineveh.
… Since that time, with but slight intermissions, this
treasure-house of a forgotten past has been turned over again
and again, notably in the expeditions of the late Mr. George
Smith, and still the supply of its cuneiform literature is not
exhausted. Until last year [1881] this discovery remained
unique; but the perseverance of the British Museum authorities
and the patient labour of Mr. Rassam were then rewarded by the
exhumation of what is apparently the library chamber of the
temple or palace at Sippara, with all its 10,000 tablets,
resting undisturbed, arranged in their position on the
shelves, just as placed in order by the librarian twenty-five
centuries ago. …
{2002}
From what Berosus tells us with regard to Sippara, or
Pantibiblon (the town of books), the very city, one of whose
libraries has just been brought to light, … it may be
inferred that this was certainly one of the first towns that
collected a library. … It is possible that the mound at
Mugheir enshrines the oldest library of all, for here are the
remains of the city of Ur (probably the Biblical Ur of the
Chaldees). From this spot came the earliest known royal brick
inscription, as follows:—'Urukh, King of Ur, who Bit Nanur
built.' Although there are several texts from Mugheir, such as
that of Dungi, son of Urukh, yet, unless by means of copies
made for later libraries in Assyria, we cannot be said to know
much of its library. Strange to say, however, the British
Museum possesses the signet cylinder of one of the librarians
of Ur, who is the earliest known person holding such an
office. … Its inscription is given thus by
Smith:—'Emuq-sin, the powerful hero, the King of Ur, King of
the four regions; Amil Anu, the tablet-keeper, son of Gatu his
servant.' … Erech, the modern Warka, is a city at which we
know there must have been one or more libraries, for it was
from thence Assurbannipal copied the famous Isdubar series of
legends in twelve tablets, one of which contained the account
of the Deluge. Hence also came the wonderful work on magic in
more than one hundred tablets: for, as we have it, it is
nothing more than a facsimile by Assurbannipal's scribes of a
treatise which had formed part of the collection of the school
of the priests at Erech. … Larsa, now named Senkereh, was
the seat of a tablet collection that seems to have been
largely a mathematical one; for in the remains we possess of
it are tablets containing tables of squares and cube roots and
others, giving the characters for fractions. There are from
here also, however, fragments with lists of the gods, a
portion of a geographical dictionary, lists of temples, &c.
… To a library at Cutha we owe the remnants of a tablet work
containing an account of the creation and the wars of the
gods, and, among others, a very ancient terra-cotta tablet
bearing a copy of an inscription engraved in the temple of the
god Dup Lan at Cutha, by Dungi, King of Ur. The number of
tablets and cylinders found by M. de Sarzec at Zirgulla show
that there too the habit of committing so much to writing was
as rife as in other cities of whose literary character we know
more."

_The Libraries of Babylonia and Assyria
(Knowledge, November 24, 1882,
and March 2, 1883)._

"One of the most important results of Sir A. H. Layard's
explorations at Nineveh was the discovery of the ruined
library of the ancient city, now buried under the mounds of
Kouyunjik. The broken clay tablets belonging to this library
not only furnished the student with an immense mass of
literary matter, but also with direct aids towards a knowledge
of the Assyrian syllabary and language. Among the literature
represented in the library of Kouyunjik were lists of
characters, with their various phonetic and ideographic
meanings, tables of synonymes, and catalogues of the names of
plants and animals. This, however, was not all. The inventors
of the cuneiform system of writing had been a people who
preceded the Semites in the occupation of Babylonia, and who
spoke an agglutinative language utterly different from that of
their Semitic successors. These Accadians, as they are usually
termed, left behind them a considerable amount of literature,
which was highly prized by the Semitic Babylonians and
Assyrians. A large portion of the Ninevite tablets,
accordingly, consists of interlinear or parallel translations
from Accadian into Assyrian, as well as of reading books,
dictionaries, and grammars, in which the Accadian original is
placed by the side of its Assyrian equivalent."

_A. H. Sayce,
Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments,
chapter 1._

LIBRARIES:
Greece.

"Pisistratus the tyrant is said to have been the first who
supplied books of the liberal sciences at Athens for public
use. Afterwards the Athenians themselves, with great care and
pains, increased their number; but all this multitude of
books, Xerxes, when he obtained possession of Athens, and
burned the whole of the city except the citadel, seized and
carried away to Persia. But king Seleucus, who was called
Nicanor, many years afterwards, was careful that all of them
should be again carried back to Athens." "That Pisistratus was
the first who collected books, seems generally allowed by
ancient writers. … In Greece were several famous libraries.
Clearchus, who was a follower of Plato, founded a magnificent
one in Heraclea. There was one in the island of Cnidos. The
books of Athens were by Sylla removed to Rome. The public
libraries of the Romans were filled with books, not of
miscellaneous literature, but were rather political and sacred
collections, consisting of what regarded their laws and the
ceremonies of their religion."

_Aulus Gellius,
The Attic Nights,
book 6, chapter 17 (volume 2),
with foot-note by W. Beloe._

"If the libraries of the Greeks at all resembled in form and
dimensions those found at Pompeii, they were by no means
spacious; neither, in fact, was a great deal of room
necessary, as the manuscripts of the ancients stowed away much
closer than our modern books, and were sometimes kept in
circular boxes, of elegant form, with covers of turned wood.
The volumes consisted of rolls of parchment, sometimes purple
at the back, or papyrus, about twelve or fourteen inches in
breadth, and as many feet long as the subject required. The
pages formed a number of transverse compartments, commencing
at the left, and proceeding in order to the other extremity,
and the reader, holding in either hand one end of the
manuscript, unrolled and rolled it up as he read. Occasionally
these books were placed on shelves, in piles, with the ends
outwards, adorned with golden bosses, the titles of the
various treatises being written on pendant labels."

_J. A. St. John,
The Hellenes,
volume 2, page 84._

"The learned reader need not be reminded how wide is the
difference between the ancient 'volumen,' or roll, and the
'volume' of the modern book-trade, and how much smaller the
amount of literary matter which the former may represent. Any
single 'book' or 'part' of a treatise would anciently have
been called 'volumen,' and would reckon as such in the
enumeration of a collection of books. The Iliad of Homer,
which in a modern library may form but a single volume, would
have counted as twenty-four 'volumina' at Alexandria.
{2003}
We read of authors leaving behind them works reckoned, not by
volumes or tens of volumes, but by hundreds. … It will at
once be understood that … the very largest assemblage of
'volumina' assigned as the total of the greatest of the
ancient collections would fall far short, in its real literary
contents, of the second-rate, or even third-rate collections
of the present day."

_Libraries, Ancient and Modern
(Edinburgh Review,
January, 1874)._

LIBRARIES:
Alexandria.