Chapter CDXXV: Act 8: Parliament 1. repeated in Act 99. Parliament 7 (22)

In the year 1736, Jonathan Hulls took out an English patent
for, the use of a steam-engine for ship-propulsion, proposing
to employ his steamboat in towing. … There is no positive
evidence that Hull! ever put his scheme to the test of
experiment, although tradition does say that he made a model,
which he tried with such ill-success as to prevent his
prosecution of the experiment further. … A prize was awarded
by the French Academy of Science, in 1752, for the best essay
on the manner of impelling vessels without wind. It was given
to Bernouilli, who, in his paper, proposed a set of vanes like
those of a windmill —a screw in fact—one to be placed on each
side the vessel and two more behind. … But a more remarkable
essay is quoted by Figuier—the paper of l' Abbé Gauthier,
published in the 'Memoires de la Société Royale des Sciences
et Lettres de Nancy.' … A little later (1760), a Swiss
clergyman, J. A. Genevois, published in London a paper
relating to the improvement of navigation, in which his plan
was proposed of compressing springs by steam or other power,
and applying their effort while recovering their form to ship
propulsion. It was at this time that the first attempts were
made in the United States to solve this problem. … William
Henry was a prominent citizen of the then little village of
Lancaster, Pa., and was noted as an ingenious and successful
mechanic. … In the year 1760 he went to England on business,
where his attention was attracted to the invention—then new,
and the subject of discussion in every circle—of James Watt.
He saw the possibility of its application to navigation and to
driving carriages, and, on his return home, commenced the
construction of a steam-engine, and finished it in 1763.
Placing it in a boat fitted with paddle-wheels, he made a
trial of the new machine on the Conestoga River, near
Lancaster, where the craft, by some accident, sank, and was
lost. He was not discouraged by this failure, but made a
second model, adding some improvements. Among the records of
the Pennsylvania Philosophical Society is, or was, a design,
presented by Henry in 1782, of one of his steamboats. … John
Fitch, whose experiments will presently be referred to, was an
acquaintance and frequent visitor to the house of Mr. Henry,
and may probably have there received the earliest suggestions
of the importance of this application of steam. About 1777 …
Robert Fulton, then twelve years old, visited him, to study
the paintings of Benjamin West, who had long been a friend and
protege of Henry. He, too, not improbably, received there the
first suggestion which afterward … made the young
portrait-painter a successful inventor and engineer. … In
France, the Marquis de Jouffroy was one of the earliest to
perceive that the improvements of Watt, rendering the engine
more compact, more powerful, and, at the same time, more
regular and positive in its action, had made it, at last,
readily applicable to the propulsion of vessels. …
{3032}
Comte d' Auxiron and Chevalier Charles Mounin, of Follenai,
friends and companions of Jouffroy, were similarly interested,
and the three are said to have … united in devising methods of
applying the new motor. In the year 1770, D'Auxiron determined
to attempt the realization of the plans which he had
conceived. He resigned his position in the army," obtained
from the King a patent of monopoly for fifteen years, and
formed a company for the undertaking. "The first vessel was
commenced in December, 1772. When nearly completed, in
September, 1774, the boat sprung a leak, and, one night,
foundered at the wharf." Quarrels and litigation ensued,
D'Auxiron died, and the company dissolved. "The heirs of
D'Auxiron turned the papers of the deceased inventor over to
Jouffroy, and the King transferred to him the monopoly held by
the former. … M. Jacques Périer, the then distinguished
mechanic, was consulted, and prepared plans, which were
adopted in place of those of Jouffroy. The boat was built by
Périer, and a trial took place in 1774 [1775] on the Seine.
The result was unsatisfactory." Jouffroy was still
undiscouraged, and pursued experiments for several years, at
his country home and at Lyons, until he had impoverished
himself and was forced to abandon the field. "About 1785, John
Fitch and James Rumsey were engaged in experiments having in
view the application of steam to navigation. Rumsey's
experiments began in 1774, and in 1786 he succeeded in driving
a boat at the rate of four miles an hour against the current
of the Potomac at Shepherdstown, West Virginia, in presence of
General Washington. His method of propulsion has often been
reinvented since. … Rumsey employed his engine to drive a
great pump which forced a stream of water aft, thus propelling
the boat forward, as proposed earlier by Bernouilli. … Rumsey
died of apoplexy, while explaining some of his schemes before
a London society a short time later, December 23, 1793, at the
age of 50 years. A boat, then in process of construction from
his plans, was afterward tried on the Thames, in 1793, and
steamed at the rate of four miles an hour. … John Fitch was an
unfortunate and eccentric, but very ingenious, Connecticut
mechanic. After roaming about until 40 years of age, he
finally settled on the banks of the Delaware, where he built
his first steamboat. … The machinery [of Fitch's first model]
was made of brass, and the boat was impelled by paddle-wheels.
… In September, 1785, Fitch presented to the American
Philosophical Society, at Philadelphia, a model in which he
had substituted an endless chain and floats for the
paddle-wheels." His first actual steamboat, however, which he
tried at Philadelphia in August, 1787, before the members of
the Federal Constitutional Convention, was fitted with neither
paddle-wheels nor floats, but with a set of oars or paddles on
each side, worked by the engine. His second boat, finished in
1788, was similarly worked, but the oars were placed at the
stern. This boat made a trip to Burlington, 20 miles from
Philadelphia. "Subsequently the boat made a number of
excursions on the Delaware River, making three or four miles
an hour. Another of Fitch's boats, in April, 1790, made seven
miles an hour. … In June of that year it was placed as a
passenger-boat on a line from Philadelphia to Burlington,
Bristol, Bordentown, and Trenton. … During this period, the
boat probably ran between 2,000 and 3,000 miles, and with no
serious accident. During the winter of 1790-'91, Fitch
commenced another steamboat, the 'Perseverance,'" which was
never finished. Although he obtained a patent from the United
States, he despaired of success in this country, and went, in
1793, to France, where he fared no better. "In the year 1796,
Fitch was again in New York City, experimenting with a little
screw steamboat on the 'Collect' Pond, which then covered that
part of the city now occupied by the 'Tombs,' the city prison.
This little boat was a ship's yawl fitted with a screw, like
that adopted later by Woodcroft, and driven by a rudely made
engine. Fitch, while in the city of Philadelphia at about this
time, met Oliver Evans, and discussed with him the probable
future of steam-navigation, and proposed to form a company in
the West." Soon afterwards, he settled on a land-grant in
Kentucky, where he died in 1798: "During this period, an
interest which had never diminished in Great Britain had led
to the introduction of experimental steamboats in that
country. Patrick Miller, of Dalswinton, had commenced
experimenting, in 1786-'87, with boats having double or triple
hulls, and propelled by paddle-wheels placed between the parts
of the compound vessel." On the suggestion of James Taylor, he
placed a steam-engine in a boat constructed upon this plan, in
1788, and attained a speed of five miles an hour. The next
year, with a larger vessel, he made seven miles an hour. But
for some reason, he pursued his undertaking no further. "In
the United States, several mechanics were now at work besides
Fitch. Samuel Morey and Nathan Read were among these. Nicholas
Roosevelt was another. … In Great Britain, Lord Dundas and
William Symington, the former as the purveyor of funds and the
latter as engineer, followed by Henry Bell, were the first to
make the introduction of the steam-engine for the propulsion
of ships so completely successful that no interruption
subsequently took place in the growth of the new system of
water-transportation. … Symington commenced work in 1801. The
first boat built for Lord Dundas, which has been claimed to
have been the 'first practical steamboat,' was finished ready
for trial early in 1802. The vessel was called the 'Charlotte
Dundas,' in honor of a daughter of Lord Dundas. … Among those
who saw the Charlotte Dundas, and who appreciated the
importance of the success achieved by Symington, was Henry
Bell, who, 10 years afterward, constructed the Comet, the
first passenger-vessel built in Europe. This vessel was built
in 1811, and completed January 18, 1812. … Bell constructed
several other boats in 1815, and with his success
steam-navigation in Great Britain was fairly inaugurated."
Meantime this practical success had been anticipated by a few
years in the United States, through the labors and exertions
of Stevens, Livingston, Fulton, and Roosevelt. Fulton's and
Livingston's first experiments were made in France (1803),
where the latter was Ambassador from the United States. Three
years later they renewed them in America, using an engine
ordered for the purpose from Boulton & Watt. "In the spring of
1807 the 'Clermont,' as the new boat was christened, was
launched from the ship-yard of Charles Brown, on the East
River, New York. In August the machinery was on board and in
successful operation.
{3033}
The hull of this boat was 133 feet long, 18 feet wide, and 9
deep. The boat soon made a trip to Albany, running the
distance of 150 miles in 32 hours running time, and returning
in 30 hours. … This was the first voyage of considerable
length ever made by a steam vessel; and Fulton, though not to
be classed with James Watt as an inventor, is entitled to the
great honor of having been the first to make steam-navigation
an everyday commercial success. … The success of the Clermont
on the trial-trip was such that Fulton soon after advertised
the vessel as a regular passenger-boat between New York and
Albany. During the next winter the Clermont was repaired and
enlarged, and in the summer of 1808 was again on the route to
Albany; and, meantime, two new steamboats—the Raritan and the
Car of Neptune—had been built by Fulton. In the year 1811 he
built the Paragon. … A steam ferry-boat was built to ply
between New York and Jersey City in 1812, and the next year
two others, to connect the metropolis with Brooklyn. … Fulton
had some active and enterprising rivals." The prize gained by
him "was most closely contested by Colonel John Stevens, of
Hoboken," who built his first steamboat in 1804, propelling it
by a screw with four blades, and his second in 1807, with two
screws. He was shut out from New York waters by a monopoly
which Fulton and Livingston had procured, and sent his little
ship by sea to Philadelphia. "After Fulton and Stevens had
thus led the way, steam-navigation was introduced very rapidly
on both sides of the ocean." Nicholas J. Roosevelt, at
Pittsburgh, in 1811, built, from Fulton's plans, the first
steamer on the western rivers, and took her to New Orleans.
"The first steamer on the Great Lakes was the Ontario, built
in 1816, at Sackett's Harbor."

_R. H. Thurston,
History of the Growth of the Steam Engine,
chapter 5._

ALSO IN:
_R. H. Thurston,
Robert Fulton._

_C. D. Colden,
Life of Robert Fulton._

_T. Westcott,
Life of John Fitch._

STEAM NAVIGATION:
On the Ocean.

"In 1819 the Atlantic was first crossed by a ship using steam.
This was the Savannah, of 380 tons, launched at Corlear's
Hook, New York, August 22, 1818. She was built to ply between
New York and Savannah as a sailing packet. She was however,
purchased by Savannah merchants [by a Mr. Scarborough] and
fitted with steam machinery, the paddle-wheels being
constructed to fold up and be laid upon the deck when not in
use, her shaft also having a joint for that purpose. She left
Savannah on the 26th of May, and reached Liverpool in 25 days,
using steam 18 days. The log book, still preserved, notes
several times taking the wheels in on deck in thirty minutes.
In August she left Liverpool for Cronstadt. An effort was made
to sell her to Russia, which failed. She sailed for Savannah,
touching at Copenhagen and Arendal, and arrived in 53 days.
Her machinery later was taken out, and she resumed her
original character as a sailing packet, and ended her days by
being wrecked on the south coast of Long Island. But
steam-power had by 1830 grown large enough to strike out more
boldly. The Savannah's effort was an attempt in which steam
was only an auxiliary, and one, too, of a not very powerful
kind. Our coastwise steamers, as well as those employed in
Great Britain, as also the voyage of the Enterprise to
Calcutta in 1825 (though she took 113 days in doing it), had
settled the possibility of the use of steam at sea, and the
question had now become whether a ship could be built to cross
the Atlantic depending entirely on her steam power. It had
become wholly a question of fuel consumption. The Savannah, it
may be said, used pitch-pine on her outward voyage, and wood
was for a very long time the chief fuel for steaming purposes
in America. … In 1836, under the influence of Brunel's bold
genius, the Great Western Steamship Company was founded as an
off-shoot of the Great Western Railway, whose terminus was
then Bristol." The Company's first ship was the Great Western.
She was of unprecedented size—236 feet length and 35 feet 4
inches breadth—"determined on by Brunei as being necessary for
the requisite power and coal carrying capacity. … The Great
Western was launched on July 19, 1837, and was towed from
Bristol to the Thames to receive her machinery, where she was
the wonder of London. She left for Bristol on March 31, 1838;
and arrived, after having had a serious fire on board, on
April 2d. In the meantime others had been struck with the
possibility of steaming to New York; and a company, of which
the moving spirit was Mr. J. Laird, of Birkenhead, purchased
the Sirius, of 700 tons, employed between London and Cork, and
prepared her for a voyage to New York. The completion of the
Great Western was consequently hastened; and she left Bristol
on Sunday, April 8, 1838, at 10 A. M. with 7 passengers on
board, and reached New York on Monday, the 23d, the afternoon
of the same day with the Sirius, which had left Cork Harbor
(where she had touched en route from London) four days before
the Great Western had left Bristol. The latter still had
nearly 200 tons of coal, of the total of 800, on board on
arrival; the Sirius had consumed her whole supply, and was
barely able to make harbor. It is needless to speak of the
reception of these two ships at New York. It was an event
which stirred the whole country, and with reason; it had
practically, at one stroke, reduced the breadth of the
Atlantic by half. … The Great Western started on her return
voyage, May 7th, with 66 passengers. This was made in 14 days,
though one was lost by a stoppage at sea." Within a few years
following several steamers were placed in the transatlantic
trade, among them the Royal William, the British Queen, the
President, the Liverpool, and the Great Britain, the latter a
screw steamer, built of iron and put afloat by the Great
Western Company. In 1840 the long famous Cunard line was
founded by Mr. Samuel Cunard, of Halifax, Nova Scotia, in
company with Mr. George Burns of Glasgow and Mr. David McIver
of Liverpool. The screw propeller (taking the place of the
paddle-wheel), which made its first appearance in ocean
navigation with the Great Britain, obtained its practical
introduction through the labors of the great Swedish engineer,
John Ericsson, though an idea of it had been in the minds of
many inventors for a century and a half. Ericsson, induced by
Francis B. Ogden and Captain Robert F. Stockton, United States
Navy, came to the United States in 1839, and the introduction
of the screw-propeller occurred rapidly after that date, the
paddle-wheel disappearing from ocean steamships first, and
more slowly from the steamers engaged in lake and river
navigation.

_F. E. Chadwick,
The Development of the Steamship
("Ocean Steamships," chapter 1)._

ALSO IN:
_A. J. Maginnis,
The Atlantic Ferry,
chapters 1-2._

_R. H. Thurston,
History of the Growth of the Steam Engine,
chapter 5._

_W. C. Church,
Life of Ericsson,
chapters 6-10 (volume 1)._

{3034}

STEDMAN, FORT, The capture of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1865 (MARCH-APRIL: VIRGINIA).

STEEL BOYS.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1760-1798.

STEEL YARD, The Association of the.

See HANSA TOWNS.

STEENWYK: Siege and relief (1581).

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1577-1581.

STEIN, Prussian reform measures of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1806 (JANUARY-AUGUST);
1807-1808; and 1808.

STEINKIRK, OR STEENKERKE, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1692.

STELA, OR STELE.

"This is one of the words most frequently used in Egyptian
archæology, because it designates a monument which is found in
hundreds. The stela is a rectangular fiat stone generally
rounded at the summit, and it was made use of by the Egyptians
for all sorts of inscriptions. These stelæ were, generally
speaking, used for epitaphs; they also served, however, to
transcribe texts which were to be preserved or exhibited to
the public, and in this latter case the stela became a sort of
monumental placard."

_A. Mariette,
Monuments of Upper Egypt,
page 29, foot-note._

STENAY: A. D. 1654.
Siege and capture by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1653-1656.

STENAY: A. D. 1659.
Ceded to France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1659-1661.

STEPHANUS, OR ESTIENNE,
Robert and Henry, The Press of.

See PRINTING &c.: A. D. 1496-1598.

STEPHEN
(of Blois), King of England, A. D. 1135-1154.

Stephen I., Pope, A. D. 752, March.

Stephen I. (called Saint), King of Hungary, 997-1038.

Stephen II., Pope, 752-757.

Stephen II., King of Hungary, 1114-1131.

Stephen III., Pope, 768-772.

Stephen III. and IV. (in rivalry),
Kings of Hungary, 1161-1173.

Stephen IV., Pope, 816-817.

Stephen V., Pope, 885-891.

Stephen V., King of Hungary, 1270-1272.

Stephen VI., Pope, 896-897.

Stephen VII., Pope, 929-931.

Stephen VIII., Pope, 939-942.

Stephen IX., Pope, 1057-1058.

Stephen Batory, King of Poland, 1575-1586.

Stephen Dushan, The Empire of.

See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES: A. D. 1341-1356.

STEPHENS, Alexander H.
Opposition to Secession.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1861 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY).

Election to the Vice-Presidency of the rebellious
"Confederate States."

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1861 (FEBRUARY).

The Hampton Roads Peace Conference.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1865 (FEBRUARY).

STEPHENSON, George, and the beginning of railroads.

See STEAM LOCOMOTION.

STETTIN: A. D. 1630.
Occupied by Gustavus Adolphus and his Swedes.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1630-1631.

STETTIN: A. D. 1648.
Cession to Sweden in the Peace of Westphalia.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1648.

STETTIN: A. D. 1677.
Siege and capture by the Elector of Brandenburg.

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1644-1697.

STETTIN: A. D. 1720.
Cession by Sweden to Prussia.

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1719-1721.

STEUBEN, Baron,
in the Virginia campaign of the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1780-1781; 1781 (JANUARY-MAY).

STEVENS, Thaddeus, and the Reconstruction Committee.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1865-1866 (DECEMBER-APRIL), to 1868-1870.

STEWART, Captain Charles, and the frigate Constitution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1814.

STEWART DYNASTY, The.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1370;
and ENGLAND: A. D. 1603, to 1688.

STILICHO, Ministry of.

See ROME: A. D. 394-395, to 404-408.

STILLWATER, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1777 (JULY-OCTOBER).

STIRLING, Earl of, The American grant to.

See NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1621-1631.

STIRLING, General Lord, and the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776 (AUGUST).

STIRLING, Wallace's victory at (1297).

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1290-1305.

STIRLING CASTLE, Sieges of.

Stirling Castle was taken in 1303 by Edward I. of England,
after a three months' siege, which he conducted in person and
which he looked upon as his proudest military achievement.
Eleven years later, in 1314, it was besieged and recaptured by
the Scots, under Edward Bruce, and it was in a desperate
attempt of the English to relieve the castle at that time that
the battle of Bannockburn was fought.

_J. H. Burton,
History of Scotland,
chapters 22-23 (volume 2)._

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1314.

STOA, The.

"We have repeatedly mentioned the stoa or colonnade in
connection with other buildings; we now have to consider it as
a separate artistic erection [in ancient Greek cities]. … The
stoa, as an independent building, occurs both as an ornament
of streets and squares, and as a convenient locality for walks
and public meetings. Its simplest form is that of a colonnade
bounded by a wall. This back wall offers a splendid surface
for decorations, and is frequently adorned with pictures. A
stoa in the market-place of Athens contained illustrations of
the battle of Œnoë, of the fight of the Athenians against the
Amazons, of the destruction of Troy and of the battle of
Marathon. … The progress from this simple form to a further
extension is on a principle somewhat analogous to what we have
observed in the temple; that is, a row of columns was added on
the other side of the wall. The result was a double colonnade,
… as a specimen of which, Pausanias mentions the Korkyraic
stoa near the market place of Elis. As important we notice
Pausanias's remark that this stoa 'contained in the middle,
not columns, but a wall'; which shows that most of the double
colonnades contained columns in the centre as props of the
roof."

_E. Guhl and W. Koner,
Life of the Greeks and Romans,
part 1, section 27._

{3035}

STOCKACH, Battle of (1799).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1798-1799 (AUGUST-APRIL).

STOCKBRIDGE INDIANS.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: STOCKBRIDGE INDIANS.

STOCKHOLM: A. D. 1471.
Battle of the Brunkeberg.

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES: A. D. 1397-1527.

STOCKHOLM: A. D. 1521-1523.
Siege by Gustavus Vasa.

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES: A. D. 1397-1527.

STOCKHOLM: A. D. 1612.
Attacked by the Danes.

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1611-1629.

STOCKHOLM, Treaty of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1812-1813.

STOCKTON AND DARLINGTON RAIL WAY.

See STEAM LOCOMOTION ON LAND.

STOLA, The.

"The Roman ladies wore, by way of under garment, a long tunic
descending to the feet, and more particularly denominated
'stola.' This vestment assumed all the variety of modification
displayed in the corresponding attire of the Grecian females.
Over the stola, they also adopted the Grecian peplum, under
the name of palla."

_T. Hope,
Costume of the Ancients,
volume 1, page 38._

STOLHOFEN, The breaking of the lines of (1707).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1706-1711.

STONE AGE. BRONZE AGE. IRON AGE.

"Human relics of great antiquity occur, more or less
abundantly, in many parts of Europe. … The antiquities
referred to are of many kinds—dwelling-places, sepulchral and
other monuments, forts and camps, and a great harvest of
implements and ornaments of stone and metal. In seeking to
classify these relics and remains according to their relative
antiquity, archæologists have selected the implements and
ornaments as affording the most satisfactory basis for such an
arrangement, and they divide prehistoric time into three
periods, which are termed respectively the Stone Age, the
Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. Of these periods the earliest
was the Stone Age, when implements and ornaments were formed
exclusively of stone, wood, horn, and bone. The use of metal
for such purposes was then quite unknown. To the Stone Age
succeeded the Age of Bronze, at which time cutting
instruments, such as swords and knives and axes, began to be
made of copper, and an alloy of that metal and tin. When in
the course of time iron replaced bronze for
cutting-instruments, the Bronze Age came to an end and the
Iron Age supervened. … The archæological periods are simply so
many phases of civilisation, and it is conceivable that Stone,
Bronze, and Iron Ages might have been contemporaneous in
different parts of one and the same continent. … It has been
found necessary within recent years to subdivide the Stone Age
into two periods, called respectively the Old Stone and New
Stone Ages; or, to employ the terms suggested by Sir John
Lubbock, and now generally adopted, the Palæolithic and
Neolithic Periods. The stone implements belonging to the older
of these periods show but little variety of form, and are very
rudely fashioned, being merely roughly chipped into shape, and
never ground or polished."

_J. Geikie,
Prehistoric Europe,
pages 5-11._

STONE OF DESTINY, The.

See LIA-FAIL.

STONE RIVER, OR MURFREESBOROUGH, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862-1863 (DECEMBER-JANUARY: TENNESSEE).

STONE STREET.

An old Roman road which runs from London to Chichester.

STONEHENGE.

See ABURY.

STONEMAN'S RAID.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1865 (APRIL-MAY).

STONEY CREEK, The Surprise at.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1813 (APRIL-JULY).

STONINGTON, Bombardment of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1813-1814.

STONY POINT, The storming of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1778-1779.

STORTHING, The.

See THING;
also SCANDINAVIAN STATES (NORWAY): A. D. 1814-1815;
and CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY.

STORY, Judge, and his judicial services.

See LAW, EQUITY: A. D. 1812.

STRAFFORD (Wentworth, Earl of) and Charles I.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1634-1637, 1640, and 1640-1641;
also, IRELAND: A. D. 1633-1639.

STRALSUND: The founding of the city.

See HANSA TOWNS.

STRALSUND: A. D. 1628.
Unsuccessful siege by Wallenstein.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1627-1629.

STRALSUND: A. D. 1678.
Siege and capture by the Elector of Brandenburg.

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1644-1697.

STRALSUND: A. D. 1715.
Siege and capture by the Danes and Prussians.

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1707-1718.

STRALSUND: A. D. 1720.
Restoration by Denmark to Sweden.

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES(SWEDEN): A. D. 1719-1721.

STRALSUND: A. D. 1809.
Occupied by the Patriot Schill.
Stormed and captured by the French.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (APRIL-JULY).

----------STRASBURG: Start--------

STRASBURG: A. D. 357.
Julian's victory.

The most serious battle in Julian's campaigns against the
Alemanni was fought in August, A. D. 357, at Strasburg (then a
Roman post called Argentoratum) where Chnodomar had crossed
the Rhine with 35,000 warriors. The result was a great victory
for the Romans.

_E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 19._

See GAUL: A. D. 355-361.

STRASBURG: A. D. 842.
The Oaths.

During the civil wars which occurred between the grandsons of
Charlemagne, in 842, the year following the great battle at
Fontainelles, the two younger of the rivals, Karl and Ludwig,
formed an alliance against Lothaire. Karl found his support in
Aquitaine and Neustria; Ludwig depended on the East Franks and
their German kindred. The armies of the two were assembled in
February at Strasburg (Argentaria) and a solemn oath of
friendship and fidelity was taken by the kings in the presence
of their people and repeated by the latter. The oath was
repeated in the German language, and in the Romance
language—then just acquiring form in southern Gaul,—and it has
been preserved in both. "In the Romance form of this oath, we
have the earliest monument of the tongue out of which the
modern French was formed."

_P. Godwin,
History of France: Ancient Gaul,
chapter 18._

ALSO IN:
_J. C. L. de Sismondi,
The French Under the Carlovingians,
translated by Bellingham,
chapter 8._

{3036}

STRASBURG: A. D. 1525.
Formal establishment of the Reformed Religion.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1522-1525.

STRASBURG: A. D. 1529.
Joined in the Protest which gave rise to the name Protestants.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1525-1529.

STRASBURG: A. D. 1674-1675.
The passage of the Rhine given to the Germans.

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1674-1678.

STRASBURG: A. D. 1681.
Seizure and annexation to France.

Overthrow of the independence of the town
as an Imperial city.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1679-1681.

STRASBURG: A. D. 1697.
Ceded to France by the Treaty of Ryswick.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1697.

STRASBURG: A. D. 1870.
Siege and capture by the Germans.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870 (JULY-AUGUST),
and (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER).

STRASBURG: A. D. 1871.
Acquisition (with Alsace) by Germany.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1871 (JANUARY-MAY).

----------STRASBURG: End--------

STRATEGI.

In ancient Sparta, the Strategi were military commanders
appointed for those armies which were not led by one of the
kings. At Athens, the whole direction of the military system
belonged to a board of ten Strategi.

G. Schumann, Antiquities of Greece: The State,
part 3, chapters 1 and 3.

STRATHCLYDE.

See CUMBRIA;
also, SCOTLAND: 7TH CENTURY.

STRELITZ, STRELTZE.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1698-1704.

STRONGBOW'S CONQUEST OF IRELAND.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1169-1175.

STUART, General J. E. B., The Raid of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JUNE: VIRGINIA).

STUARTS, The.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1370;
and ENGLAND: A. D. 1603.

STUM, Battle of (1629).

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1611-1629.

STUNDISTS, The.

In the neighborhood of Kherson, in southern Russia, the
Stundist religious movement arose, about 1858. As its name
implies, it "had a German origin. As far back as 1778 the
great Empress Catherine had colonized Kherson with peasants
from the Suabian land, who brought with them their religion,
their pastors, and their industrious, sober ways. For many
years national prejudices and the barriers of language kept
Russians and Germans apart from each other. But sooner or
later true life begins to tell. … Some of the Russian peasants
who had been helped in their poverty or ministered to in their
sickness by their German neighbours began to attend their
services —to keep the 'stunden,' or 'hours,' of praise and
prayer; they learned to read, were furnished with the New
Testament in their own language, and eventually some of them
found the deeper blessing of eternal life. In this simple
scriptural fashion this memorable movement began. Men told
their neighbours what God had done for their souls, and so the
heavenly contagion spread from cottage to cottage, from
village to village, and from province to province, till at
length the Russian Stundists were found in all the provinces
from the boundaries of the Austrian Empire in the West to the
land of the Don Cossack in the East, and were supposed to
number something like a quarter of a million souls. … M.
Dalton, a Lutheran clergyman, long resident in St. Petersburg,
and whose knowledge of religious movements in Russia is very
considerable, goes so far as to say that they are two millions
strong. But it is not alone to the actual number of professing
Stundists that we are to look in estimating the force and
extent of the movement which they have inaugurated in Russia.
… Compared with the enormous population of the Russian Empire,
the number of Stundists, whether two millions or only a
quarter of a million, is insignificant; but the spirit of
Stundism has spread, and is still spreading into regions as
ultra-Orthodox as the heart of the most bigoted Greek
Churchman could desire, and is slowly but surely leavening the
whole mass."

_J. Brown, editor,
The Stundists,
preface and chapter. 14._

STUYVESANT, Peter, The administration of.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1647-1664, to 1664.

STYRIA:
Origin, and annexation to Austria.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 805-1246.

STYRIA:A. D. 1576.
Annexation of Croatia.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1567-1604.

STYRIA:17th Century.
Suppression of the Reformation.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1608-1618.

SUABIA, The Imperial House of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1138-1268;
and ITALY: A. D. 1154-1162, to 1183-1250.

SUABIA AND SUABIANS, Ancient.

See SUEVI; and ALEMANNI.

SUABIAN BUND, OR LEAGUE, The.

See LANDFRIEDE, &c.;
also CITIES, IMPERIAL AND FREE, OF GERMANY;
and FEDERAL GOVERNMENT.

SUABIAN CIRCLE, The.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1493-1519;
also, ALEMANNI: A. D. 496-504.

SUABIAN WAR (1496-1499).

See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1396-1499.

SUARDONES, The.

See AVIONES.

SUBLICIAN BRIDGE.

The Pons Sublicius was the single bridge in ancient Rome with
which the Tiber was originally spanned. It was built of wood,
and constructed for easy removal when an enemy threatened. No
trace of it exists.

_B. G. Niebuhr,
Lectures on Ancient Ethnography and Geography,
volume 2. page 103._

SUBLIME PORTE, The.

"The figurative language of the institutes of Mahomet II.
[Sultan, A. D. 1451-1481], still employed by his Successors,
describes the state under the martial metaphor of a tent. The
Lofty Gate of the Royal Tent (where Oriental rulers of old
sate to administer justice) denotes the chief seat of
government. The Italian translation of the phrase, 'La Porta
Sublima,' has been adopted by Western nations, with slight
modifications to suit their respective languages; and by 'The
Sublime Porte' we commonly mean the Imperial Otto·man
Government. The Turkish legists and historians depict the
details of their government by imagery drawn from the same
metaphor of a royal tent. The dome of the state is supported
by four pillars. These are formed by, 1st, the Viziers; 2nd,
the Kudiaskers (judges); 3rd, the Defterdars (treasurers); and
4th, the Nischandyis (the secretaries of state). Besides
these, there are the Outer Agas, that is to say, the military
rulers; and the Inner Agas, that is to say, the rulers
employed in the court.
{3037}
There is also the order of the Ulema, or men learned in the
law. The Viziers were regarded as constituting the most
important pillar that upheld the fabric of the state. In
Mahomet II.'s time the Viziers were four in number. Their
chief, the Grand Vizier, is the highest of all officers. … The
… high legal dignitaries (who were at that time next in rank
to the Kadiaskers) were, 1st, the Kho-dya, who was the tutor
of the Sultan and the Princes Royal; 2nd, the Mufti, the
authoritative expounder of the law; and, 3rdly, the Judge of
Constantinople. … The great council of state was named the
Divan; and, in the absence of the Sultan, the Grand Vizier was
its president. … The Divan was also attended by the
Reis-Effendi, a general secretary, whose power afterwards
became more important than that of the Nis-chandyis; by the
Grand Chamberlain, and the Grand Marshal, and a train of other
officers of the court."

_Sir E. S. Creasy,
History of the Ottoman Turks,
pages 96-97._

See, also, PHARAOHS.

SUB-TREASURY, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1837.

SUBURA, at Rome, The.

"Between the converging points of the Quirinal and Esquiline
hills lay the Subura, a district of ill-fame, much abused by
the poets and historians of imperial times. It was one of the
most ancient district communities ('pagi') of Rome, and gave
name to one of the four most ancient regions. Nor was it
entirely occupied by the lowest class of people, as might be
inferred from the notices of it in Martial and Horace. Julius
Cæsar is said to have lived in a small house here. … The
Subura was a noisy, bustling part of Rome, full of small
shops, and disreputable places of various kinds."

_H. Burn,
Rome and the Campagna,
chapter 6, part 1._

SUCCESSION, The Austrian: The Question and War of.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1718-1738, 1740, and to 1744-1745;
NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1745, and 1746-1747;
ITALY: A. D. 1741-1743, to 1746-1747;
AIX-LA-CHAPELLE: THE CONGRESS.

SUCCESSION, The Spanish:
The question and war of.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1698-1700, to 1713-1725;
and UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

SUCCOTH.

See JEWS: THE ROUTE OF THE EXODUS.

----------SUDAN: Start--------

SUDAN, OR SOUDAN, The.

"Forming a natural frontier to the Great Desert is that
section of Africa known by the somewhat vague name of Sudan.
By this term is understood the region south of the Sahara,
limited on the west and south by the Atlantic Ocean as far as
it reaches. From the Gulf of Guinea inland, there is no
definite southern border line. It may, however, be assumed at
the fifth degree of north latitude. … [The] Nile region is
generally taken as the eastern frontier of Sudan, although it
properly reaches to the foot of the Abyssinian highlands.
Hence modern maps have introduced the appropriate expression
'Egyptian Sudan' for those eastern districts comprising
Senaar, Kordofan, Darfur, and some others. Sudan is therefore,
strictly speaking, a broad tract of country reaching right
across the whole continent from the Atlantic seaboard almost
to the shores of the Red Sea, and is the true home of the
Negro races. When our knowledge of the interior has become
sufficiently extended to enable us accurately to fix the
geographical limits of the Negroes, it may become desirable to
make the term Sudan convertible with the whole region
inhabited by them."

_Hellwald-Johnston,
Africa (Stanford's Compendium),
chapter 9._

SUDAN: A. D. 1870-1885.
Egyptian conquest.
General Gordon's government.
The Mahdi's rebellion.
The British campaign.
Death of Gordon.

See EGYPT: A. D. 1870-1883; and 1884-1885.

----------SUDAN: End--------

SUDOR ANGLICUS.

See SWEATING SICKNESS;
and PLAGUE: A. D. 1486-1593.

SUDRAS.

See CASTE SYSTEM OF INDIA.

SUESSIONES, The.

See BELGÆ.

SUETONIUS PAULINUS: Campaigns in Britain.

See BRITAIN: A. D. 61.

----------SUEVI: Start--------

SUEVI, SUEBI, The.

"I must now speak of the Suevi, who are not one nation as are
the Chatti and Tencteri, for they occupy the greater part of
Germany, and have hitherto been divided into separate tribes
with names of their own, though they are called by the general
designation of 'Suevi.' A national peculiarity with them is to
twist their hair back and fasten it in a knot. This
distinguishes the Suevi from the other Germans, as it also
does their own freeborn from their slaves."—"Suevia would seem
to have been a comprehensive name for the country between the
Elbe and the Vistula as far north as the Baltic. Tacitus and
Cæsar differ about the Suevi. Suabia is the same word as
Suevia."

_Tacitus,
Germany,
translated by Church and Brodribb,
chapter. 38, with geographical note._

"The Suebi, that is the wandering people or nomads. … Cæsar's
Suebi were probably the Chatti; but that designation certainly
belonged in Cæsar's time, and even much later, to every other
German stock which could be described as a regularly wandering
one."

_T. Mommsen,
History of Rome,
book 5, chapter 7, with note._

"The name of the country called Suabia is a true ethnological
term, even as Franconia is one. The one means the country
occupied by the Suevi, the other the country occupied by the
Franks. … At what time the name first became an unequivocal
geographical designation of what now, in the way of politics,
coincides with the Grand Duchy of Baden and part of
Wurtemburg, and, in respect to its physical geography, is part
of the Black Forest, is uncertain. It was not, however, later
than the reign of Alexander Severus (ending A. D. 235). …
Therein, Alamannia and Suevia appear together —as terms for
that part of Germany which had previously gone under the name
of 'Decumates agri,' and the parts about the 'Limes Romanus.'
With this, then, begins the history of the Suevi of Suabia,
or, rather, of the Suabians. Their alliances were chiefly with
the Alamanni and Burgundians; their theatre the German side of
France, Switzerland, Italy, and (in conjunction with the
Visigoths) Spain. Their epoch is from the reign of Alexander
to that of Augustulus, in round numbers, from about A. D. 225
to A. D. 475."

_R. G. Latham,
The Germania of Tacitus, epilegomena,
section 20._

See, also, ALEMANNI,
and BAVARIA: THE ETHNOLOGY.

{3038}

SUEVI: B. C. 58.
Expulsion from Gaul by Cæsar.

A large body of the Suevi, a formidable German tribe, the name
of which has survived in modern Suabia, crossed the Rhine and
entered Gaul about B. C. 61. They came at the invitation of
the Arverni and Sequani of Gaul, who were forming a league
against the Ædui, their rivals, and who sought the aid of the
German warriors. The latter responded eagerly to the call,
and, having lodged themselves in the country of the Sequani,
summoned fresh hordes of their countrymen to join them. The
Gauls soon found that they had brought troublesome neighbors
into their midst, and they all joined in praying Cæsar and his
Roman legions to expel the insolent intruders. Cæsar had then
just entered on the government of the Roman Gallic provinces
and had signalized his first appearance in the field by
stopping the attempted migration of the Helvetii, destroying
two thirds of them, and forcing the remnant back to their
mountains. He welcomed an opportunity to interfere further in
Gallic affairs and promptly addressed certain proposals to the
Suevic chieftain, Ariovistus, which the latter rejected with
disdain. Some negotiations followed, but both parties meant
war, and the question, which should make a conquest of Gaul,
was decided speedily at a great battle fought at some place
about 80 miles from Vesontio (modern Besançon) in the year 58
B. C. The Germans were routed, driven into the Rhine and
almost totally destroyed. Ariovistus, with a very few
followers, escaped across the river, and died soon afterwards.

_C. Merivale,
History of the Romans,
chapter 6._

ALSO IN:
_Cæsar,
Gallic Wars,
book 1, chapters 31-53._

_Napoleon III.,
History of Cæsar,
book 3, chapter 4._

SUEVI: A. D. 406-409.
Final invasion of Gaul.

See GAUL: A. D. 406-409.

SUEVI: A. D. 409-414.
Settlement in Spain.

See SPAIN: A. D. 409-414.

SUEVI: A. D. 409-573.
Their history in Spain.

"The Suevi kept their ground for more than half a century in
Spain, before they embraced the Christian religion and became
Arians. Being surrounded on all sides by the Visigoths, their
history contains merely an account of the wars which they had
to maintain against their neighbours: they were long and
bloody; 164 years were passed in fighting before they could be
brought to yield. In 573, Leovigild, king of the Visigoths,
united them to the monarchy of Spain."

_J. C. L. de Sismondi,
Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 7 (volume l)._

See, also, VANDALS: A. D. 428,
and GOTHS (VISIGOTHS): A. D. 507-712.

SUEVI: A. D. 460-500.
In Germany.

Those tribes of the Suevic confederacy which remained on the
German side of the Rhine, while their brethren pressed
southwards, along with the Vandals and Burgundians, in the
great invasive movement of 406, "dwelt in the south-west
corner of Germany, in the region which is now known as the
Black Forest, and away eastwards along the Upper Danube,
perhaps as far as the river Lech. They were already mingled
with the Alamanni of the mountains, a process which was no
doubt carried yet further when, some thirty years after the
time now reached by us [about 460] Clovis overthrew the
monarchy of the Alamanni [A. D. 496], whom he drove
remorselessly forth from all the lands north of the Neckar.
The result of these migrations and alliances was the formation
of the two great Duchies with which we are so familiar in the
mediaeval history of Germany—Suabia and Franconia. Suabia,
which is a convertible term with Alamannia, represents the
land left to the mingled Suevi and Alamanni; Franconia that
occupied east of the Rhine by the intrusive Franks."

_T. Hodgkin,
Italy and her Invaders,
book 4, chapter 1 (volume 3)._

See, also, ALEMANNI: A. D. 496-504.

----------SUEVI: End--------

SUEVIC SEA.

The ancient name of the Baltic.

SUEZ CANAL, Opening of the (1869).

See EGYPT: A. D. 1840-1869.

SUFFERERS' LANDS, The.

See OHIO: A. D. 1786-1796.

SUFFETES.

"The original monarchical constitution [of Carthage]—doubtless
inherited from Tyre—was represented (practically in
Aristotle's time, and theoretically to the latest period) by
two supreme magistrates called by the Romans Suffetes. Their
name is the same as the Hebrew Shofetim, mistranslated in our
Bible, Judges. The Hamilcars and Hannos of Carthage were, like
their prototypes, the Gideons and the Samsons of the Book of
Judges, not so much the judges as the protectors and rulers of
their respective states."

_R. B. Smith,
Carthage and the Carthaginians,
chapter 1._

See, also, JEWS: ISRAEL UNDER THE JUDGES.

SUFFOLK RESOLVES, The.

See BOSTON: A. D. 1774.

SUFFRAGE, Woman.

See WOMAN SUFFRAGE.

SUFFRAGE QUALIFICATION IN ENGLAND.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1884-1885.

SUFIS.

A sect of Mahometan mystics. "The final object of the Sufi
devotee is to attain to the light of Heaven, towards which he
must press forward till perfect knowledge is reached in his
union with God, to be consummated, after death, in absorption
into the Divine Being."

_J. W. H. Stobart,
Islam and its Founder,
chapter 10._

SUGAMBRI, SICAMBRI.

See USIPETES;
also FRANKS: ORIGIN, and A. D. 253.

SUGAR ACT, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1763-1764.

SUGAR-HOUSE PRISONS, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1776-1777 PRISONERS AND EXCHANGES.

SUIONES, The.

"Next [on the Baltic] occur the communities of the Suiones,
seated in the very Ocean, who, besides their strength in men
and arms, also possess a naval force. … These people honour
wealth." "The Suiones inhabited Sweden and the Danish isles of
Funen, Langland, Zeeland, Laland, etc. From them and the
Cimbri were derived the Normans."

_Tacitus,
Germany,
Oxford Translation,
chapter 44 and note._

SULIOTES, The.

"The heroic struggle of the little commonwealth over a number
of years, [1787-1804] against all the resources and ingenuity
of Ali Pacha [vizir of Jannina] is very stirring and full of
episode. … The origin of the Suliotes is lost in obscurity. …
The chief families traced their origin to different villages
and districts; and, though their language was Greek, they
appear to have consisted, for the most part, of Christian
Albanians, with a small admixture of Greeks, who, flying from
the oppression of the invaders, had taken refuge in the
well-nigh inaccessible mountains of Chamouri (Chimari) [in
Epirus], and had there established a curious patriarchal
community. … At the time when they became conspicuous in
history the Suliotes were possessed of four villages in the
great ravine of Suli, namely, Kiapha, Avariko, Samoniva, and
Kako-Suli, composing a group known as the Tetrachorion; and
seven villages in the plains, whose inhabitants, being
considered genuine Suliotes, were allowed to retire into the
mountain in time of war. …
{3039}
They also controlled between 50 and 60 tributary villages,
with a mixed population of Greeks and Albanians; but these
were abandoned to their fate in war. In the early part of the
last century the Suliotes are said not to have had more than
200 fighting-men, although they were almost always engaged in
petty warfare and marauding expeditions; and at the period of
their extraordinary successes the numbers of the Suliotes
proper never exceeded 5,000 souls, with a fighting strength d
1,500 men, who were, however, reinforced at need by the women.
Their government was purely patriarchal; they had neither
written laws nor law courts, and the family formed the
political unit of the State. The families were grouped
together in tribal alliances called Pharas, of which there
were 29 in the Tetrachorion and 18 in the Heptachorion. All
disputes were settled by arbitration by the heads of the
Pharas; and these 47 elders formed a sort of general Council,
the matter for discussion being almost exclusively war. As
they were gradually driven from the plains which had supported
them to the mountains, which produced nothing but pasture for
their flocks, they were of necessity compelled to support
themselves by marauding expeditions, which involved them in
perpetual difficulties with the surrounding Ottoman governors.
The historian of Suli enumerates no less than eight wars in
which the community was involved before their great struggle
with Ali."

_R. Rodd,
The Customs and Lore of Modern Greece,
chapter 10._

SULLA, Proscriptions by and Dictatorship of.

See ROME: B. C. 88-78.

SULLIVAN, General John,
and the War of the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775 (MAY-AUGUST);
1776 (AUGUST); 1779 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER).

SULTAN, The Title.

Gibbon (chapter 57) represents that the title of Sultan was
first invented for Mahmud the Gaznevide, by the ambassador of
the Caliph of Bagdad, "who employed an Arabian or Chaldaic
word that signifies 'lord' and 'master.'" But Dr. William
Smith in a note to this passage in Gibbon, citing Weil, says:
"It is uncertain when the title of Sultan was first used, but
it seems at all events to have been older than the time of
Mahmud. It is mentioned by Halebi, under the reign of
Motawaccel; but according to Ibn Chaldun it was first assumed
by the Bowides."

See TURKS: A. D. 999-1183.

SUMIR, SHUMIR.

See BABYLONIA, PRIMITIVE.

SUMTER, The Confederate cruiser.

See ALABAMA CLAIMS: A. D. 1861-1862.

----------SUMTER, Fort: Start--------

SUMTER, Fort: A. D. 1860.
Occupied and held by Major Anderson, for the United
States Government.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1860 (DECEMBER).

SUMTER, Fort: A. D. 1861 (April).
Bombardment and reduction by the Rebel batteries.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 MARCH-APRIL).

SUMTER, Fort: A. D. 1863.
Attack and repulse of the Monitors.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1863 (APRIL: SOUTH CAROLINA).

SUMTER, Fort: A. D. 1863.
Bombardment and unsuccessful assault.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1863 (AUGUST-DECEMBER: SOUTH CAROLINA).

SUMTER, Fort: A. D. 1865 (February-April).
Recovery by the nation.
The restoring of the flag.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1865 (FEBRUARY: SOUTH CAROLINA).

----------SUMTER, Fort: End--------

SUNNAH, The.

See ISLAM.

SUNNI SECT, The.

See ISLAM.

SUOVETAURILIA.

Expiatory sacrifices of pigs, sheep and oxen, offered by the
ancient Romans at the end of a lustrum and after a triumph.

_E. Guhl and W. Koner,
Life of the Greeks and Romans,
section 103._

SUPERIOR, Lake, The discovery of.

See CANADA: A. D. 1634-1673.

SUPREMACY, The Acts of.

The first Act of Supremacy, which established the independence
of the Church of England and broke its relations with Rome,
was passed by the English Parliament during the reign of Henry
VIII., in 1534. It enacted "that the King should be taken and
reputed 'the only Supreme Head on earth of the Church of
England called Ecclesia Anglicana, and shall have and enjoy,
annexed and united to the imperial Crown of this realm, as
well the title and style thereof, as all honours, dignities,
pre-eminencies, jurisdictions, privileges, authorities,
immunities, profits, and commodities, to the said dignity of
Supreme Head of the same church belonging and appertaining';
with full power to visit, reform, and correct all heresies,
errors, abuses, offences, contempts and enormities which, by
any manner of spiritual authority or jurisdiction, ought to be
reformed or corrected."

_T. P. Taswell-Langmead,
English Constitutional History,
chapter 11._

The Act of Supremacy was repealed in the reign of Mary and
re-enacted with changes in that of Elizabeth, 1559.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1527-1534; and 1559.

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES, The.

"On the 24th day of September, 1789, the act organizing the
Supreme Court; was passed. The Court was constituted with a
Chief Justice and five associates. John Jay was appointed the
first Chief Justice by Washington. Webster said of him that
when the ermine fell upon his shoulders, it touched a being as
spotless as itself. The Court first convened in February,
1790, in New York. It does not appear from the reports that
any case then came before it. Jay remained Chief Justice until
1795, when he resigned to become governor of the State of New
York. A Chief Justice in our day would hardly do this. His
judicial duties were so few that he found time, in 1794, to
accept the mission to England to negotiate the treaty so
famous in history as 'Jay's Treaty.' John Rutledge of South
Carolina was appointed to succeed Jay, but he was so
pronounced in his opposition to the treaty, and so bitter in
his denunciation of Jay himself, that the federal Senate
refused to confirm him. William Cushing of Massachusetts, one
of the associate justices, was then nominated by Washington,
and was promptly confirmed; but he preferred to remain
associate justice, and Oliver Ellsworth of Connecticut was
made Chief Justice. He held the office until 1801, when John
Marshall of Virginia was appointed by President Adams.
Marshall held the office thirty-four years. He was known at
the time of his appointment as an ardent Federalist.
{3040}
In our time he is known as 'the great Chief Justice.' Roger B.
Taney was the next incumbent. He was appointed by President
Jackson. His political enemies styled him a renegade
Federalist, and said that his appointment was his reward for
his obsequious obedience, while Secretary of the Treasury, to
President Jackson. But Taney, despite the Dred Scott decision,
was an honest man and a great judge. His opinions are models
of lucid and orderly discussion, and are of admirable literary
form. He held the office for twenty-eight years, and upon his
death in 1864, President Lincoln appointed Salmon P. Chase, of
Ohio. Chief Justice Chase died in 1874. President Grant then
appointed Morrison R. Waite of Ohio. He died in 1888. Melville
W. Fuller, of Illinois, is the present [1889] incumbent, his
appointment having been made by President Cleveland. … In 1807
an associate judge was added by Congress; two more were added
in 1837, and one in 1863. They were added to enable the Court
to perform the work of the circuits, which increased with the
growth of the country."

_J. S. Landon,
The Constitutional History and Government
of the United States,
lecture 10._