Chapter IV: , VII (78)

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862. (MAY-JUNE: VIRGINIA).

{1407}

FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR.

The four intercolonial wars of the 17th and 18th centuries, in
America, commonly known, respectively, as "King William's
War," "Queen Anne's War," "King George's War," and the French
and Indian War, were all of them conflicts with the French and
Indians of Canada, or New France; but the last of the series
(coincident with the "Seven Years War" in Europe) became
especially characterized in the colonies by that designation.
Its causes and chief events are to be found related under the
following headings:

CANADA: A.D. 1750-1753, 1755, 1756, 1756-1757, 1758,
1759, 1760;
NOVA SCOTIA: A. D.1749-1755, 1755;
OHIO (VALLEY): A. D. 1748-1754, 1754, 1755;
CAPE BRETON ISLAND: A. D. 1758-1760;
also, for an account of the accompanying Cherokee War,
SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1759-1761.

FRENCH FURY, The.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1581-1584.

FRENCH SPOLIATION CLAIMS.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1800.

FRENCHTOWN (now Monroe, Mich.), Battle at.

See
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1812-1813.

HARRISON'S NORTHWESTERN CAMPAIGN.

FRENTANIANS, The.

See SABINES.

FRIARS.
"Carmelite Friars,"
"White Friars."

See CARMELITE FRIARS.

Austin Friars;

See AUSTIN CANONS.

"Preaching Friars,"
"Begging Friars,"
"Minor Friars,"
"Black Friars,"
"Grey Friars."

See MENDICANT ORDERS.

FRIEDLAND, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1807 (FEBRUARY-JUNE).

FRIEDLINGEN, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1702.

FRIENDS, The Society of.

See QUAKERS.

FRIENDS OF THE PEOPLE; The Society of the.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1830-1840.

FRIESLAND.
Absorbed in the dominions of the House of Burgundy (1430).

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1417-1430.

FRIGIDUS, Battle of the (A. D. 394).

See ROME: A. D. 379-395.

FRILING, The.

See LÆTI.

FRIMAIRE, The month.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (OCTOBER).

FRISIANS, The.

"Beyond the Batavians, upon the north, dwelt the great Frisian
family, occupying the regions between the Rhine and Ems. The
Zuyder Zee and the Dollart, both caused by the terrific
inundations of the 13th century, and not existing at this
period [the early Roman Empire], did not then interpose
boundaries between kindred tribes."

_J. L. Motley,
Rise of the Dutch Republic,
introduction, section. 2._

"The Frisians, adjoining [the Batavi] … in the coast
district that is still named after them, as far as the lower
Ems, submitted to Drusus and obtained a position similar to
that of the Batavi. There was imposed on them instead of
tribute simply the delivery of a number of bullocks' hides for
the wants of the army; on the other hand they had to furnish
comparatively large numbers of men for the Roman service. They
were the most faithful allies of Drusus as afterwards of
Germanicus."

_T. Mommsen,
History of Rome,
book 8, chapter 4._

FRISIANS: A. D. 528-729.
Struggles against the Frank dominion, before Charlemagne.

See GERMANY: A. D. 481-768.

FRITH-GUILDS.

See GUILDS, MEDIÆVAL.

FROEBEL AND THE KINDERGARTEN.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: REFORMS &c.: 1816-1892.

FROG'S POINT, Battle At.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1776 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER).

FRONDE, FRONDEURS, The.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1647-1648, 1649, 1650-1651, 1651-1653;
and BORDEAUX: A. D. 1652-1653.

FRONT ROYAL, Stonewall Jackson's capture of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (MAY-JUNE: VIRGINIA).

FRONTENAC, Count, in New France.

See CANADA: A. D. 1669-1687, to 1696.

FRONTENAC, Fort.

See KINGSTON, CANADA.

FRUCTIDOR, The Month.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (OCTOBER).

FRUCTIDOR: The Coup d'Etat of the Eighteenth of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1797 (SEPTEMBER).

FRUELA I.,
King of Leon and the Asturias, or Oviedo, A. D. 757-768.

Fruela II., King of Leon and the Asturias, or Oviedo,
A. D. 923-925.

FRUMENTARIAN LAW, The First.

See ROME: B. C. 133-121.

FUEGIANS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PATAGONIANS.

FUENTES D'ONORO, Battle of (1811).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1810-1812.

FUFIAN LAW, The.

See ÆLIAN AND FUFIAN LAWS.

FUGGERS, The.

"Hans Fugger was the founder of the Fugger family, whose
members still possess extensive estates and authority as
princes and counts in Bavaria and Wurtemburg. He came to
Augsburg in 1365 as a poor but energetic weaver's apprentice,
acquired citizenship by marrying a burgher's daughter, and,
after completing an excellent masterpiece, was admitted into
the guild of weavers. … Hans Fugger died in 1409, leaving
behind him a fortune of 3,000 florins, which he had made by
his skill and diligence. This was a considerable sum in those
days, for the gold mines of the New World had not yet been
opened up, and the necessaries of life sold for very low
prices. The sons carried on their father's business, and with
so much skill and success that they were always called the
rich Fuggers. The importance and wealth of the family
increased every day. By the year 1500 it was not easy to find
a frequented route by sea or land where Fugger's wares were
not to be seen. On one occasion the powerful Hanseatic league
seized twenty of their ships, which were sailing with a cargo
of Hungarian copper, down the Vistula to Cracow and Dantzic.
Below ground the miner worked for Fugger, above it the
artisan. In 1448 they lent 150,000 florins to the then
Archdukes of Austria, the Emperor Frederick the Third (father
of Maximilian) and his brother Albert. In 1509 a century had
passed since the weaver Hans Fugger had died leaving his
fortune of 3,000 florins, acquired by his laborious industry.
His grand-children were now the richest merchants in Europe;
without the aid of their money the mightiest princes of the
continent could not complete any important enterprise, and
their family was connected with the noblest houses by the ties
of relationship. They were raised to the rank of noblemen and
endowed with honourable privileges by the Emperor Maximilian
the First."

_A. W. Grube,
Heroes of History and Legend,
chapter 13._

{1408}

FUGITIVE SLAVE LAW, AND ITS REPEAL.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1850, and 1864 (JUNE).

FULAHS, The.

See AFRICA: THE INHABITING RACES.

FULFORD, Battle of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1066 (SEPTEMBER).

FULTON'S FIRST STEAMBOAT.

See STEAM NAVIGATION: THE BEGINNINGS.

FUNDAMENTAL AGREEMENT OF NEW HAVEN.

See CONNECTICUT: A. D. 1639.

FUNDAMENTAL ORDERS OF CONNECTICUT.

See CONNECTICUT: A. D. 1636-1639.

FUORUSCITI.

In Italy, during the Guelf and Ghibelline contests of the 13th
and 14th centuries (see ITALY: A. D. 1215-1293), "almost every
city had its body of 'fuorusciti';—literally, 'those who had
gone out';—proscripts and exiles, in fact, who represented
the minorities … in the different communities;—Ghibelline
fuorusciti from Guelph cities, and Guelph fuorusciti from
Ghibelline cities."

_T. A. Trollope,
History of the Commonwealth of Florence,
volume 1, page 380._

FÜRST.
Prince; the equivalent German title.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1125-1152.

FURY, The French.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1581-1584.

FURY, The Spanish.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1575-1577.

FUSILLADES.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793-1794 (OCTOBER-APRIL).

FUTTEH ALI SHAH.

Shah of Persia, A. D. 1798-1834.

FUTTEHPORE, Battle of (1857).

See INDIA: A. D. 1857-1858 (JULY-JUNE).

FYLFOT-CROSS, The.

See TRI-SKELION.

FYRD, The.

"The one national army [in Saxon England, before the Norman
Conquest] was the fyrd, a force which had already received in
the Karolingian legislation the name of landwehr by which the
German knows it still. The fyrd was in fact composed of the
whole mass of free landowners who formed the folk: and to the
last it could only be summoned by the voice of the folk-moot.
In theory therefore such a host represented the whole
available force of the country. But in actual warfare its
attendance at the king's war-call was limited by practical
difficulties. Arms were costly; and the greater part of the
fyrd came equipped with bludgeons and hedge-stakes, which
could do little to meet the spear and battleaxe of the
invader."

_J. R. Green,
The Conquest of England,
p. 133._

G.

GA, The.

See GAU.

GABELLE The.

"In the spring of the year 1343, the king [Philip de Valois,
king of France] published an ordinance by which no one was
allowed to sell salt in France unless he bought it from the
store-houses of the crown, which gave him the power of
committing any degree of extortion in an article that was of
the utmost necessity to his subjects. This obnoxious tax,
which at a subsequent period became one of the chief sources
of the revenue of the crown of France, was termed a gabelle, a
word of Frankish or Teutonic origin, which had been in use
from the earliest period to signify a tax in general, but
which was from this time almost restricted to the
extraordinary duty on salt. … This word gabelle is the same
as the Anglo-Saxon word 'gafol,' a tax."

_T. Wright,
History of France,
volume 1, page 364, and foot-note._

See, also, TAILEE AND GABELLE.

GABINIAN LAW, The.

See ROME: B.C. 69-63.

GACHUPINES AND GUADALUPES.

In the last days of Spanish rule in Mexico, the Spanish
official party bore the name of Gachupines, while the native
party, which prepared for revolution, were called Guadalupes.

_E. J. Payne,
History of European Colonies,
p. 303._

The name of the Guadalupes was adopted by the Mexicans "in
honour of 'Our Lady of Guadalupe,' the tutelar protectress of
Mexico;" while that of the Gachupines "was a sobriquet
gratuitously bestowed upon the Spanish faction."

_W. H. Chynoweth,
The Fall of Maximilian,
page 3._

GADEBUSCH, Battle of (1712).

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1707-1718.

GADENI, The.

See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.

GADES (Modern Cadiz); Ancient commerce of.

"At this period [early in the last century before Christ]
Gades was undoubtedly one of the most important emporiums of
trade in the world: her citizens having absorbed a large part
of the commerce that had previously belonged to Carthage. In
the time of Strabo they still retained almost the whole trade
with the Outer Sea, or Atlantic coasts."

_E. H. Bunbury,
History of Ancient Geography,
chapter 18, section 6 (volume 2)._

See, also, UTICA.

GADSDEN PURCHASE, The.

See ARIZONA: A. D. 1853.

GAEL.

See CELTS.

GAETA: A. D. 1805-1806.
Siege and Capture by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1805-1806 (DECEMBER-SEPTEMBER).

GAETA: A. D. 1848.
The refuge of Pope Pius IX.

See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849.

GAFOL.

A payment in money, or kind, or work, rendered in the way of
rent by a villein-tenant to his lord, among the Saxons and
early English. The word signified tribute.

_F. Seebohm,
English Village Community,
chapters 2 and 5._

GAG, The Atherton.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1836.

GAGE, General Thomas, in the command and government at Boston.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1774 (MARCH-APRIL);
1775 (APRIL), (APRIL-MAY), and (JUNE).

GAI SABER, El.

See PROVENCE: A. D. 1179-1207.

GAINAS, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 547-633.

GAINES' MILL, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (JUNE-JULY: VIRGINIA).

GALATA, The Genoese colony.

See GENOA: A. D. 1261-1299;
also CONSTANTINOPLE: A. D. 1261-1453, and 1348-1355.

{1409}

GALATÆ, The.

See GAULS.

GALATIA.-GALATIANS.

In 280 B. C. a body of Gauls, or Celts, invaded Greece, under
Brennus, and in the following year three tribes of them
crossed into Asia Minor. There, as in Greece, they committed
terrible ravages, and were a desolating scourge to the land,
sometimes employed as mercenaries by one and another of the
princes who fought over the fragments of Alexander's Empire,
and sometimes roaming for plunder on their own account.
Antiochus, son of Seleueus, of Syria, is said to have won a
great victory over them; but it was not until 239 B. C. that
they were seriously checked by Attalus, King of Pergamus, who
defeated them in a great battle and forced them to settle in
the part of ancient Phrygia which afterwards took its name
from them, being called Galatia, or Gallo-Græcia, or Eastern
Gaul. When the Romans subjugated Asia Minor they found the
Galatæ among their most formidable enemies. The latter were
permitted for a time to retain a certain degree of
independence, under tetrarchs, and afterwards under kings of
their own. But finally Galatia became a Roman province. "When
St. Paul preached among them, they seemed fused into the
Hellenistic world, speaking Greek like the rest of Asia; yet
the Celtic language long lingered among them and St. Jerome
says he found the country people still using it in his day
(fourth century A. D.)."

_J. P. Mahaffy,
Story of Alexander's Empire,
chapter 8._

See, also, GAULS: B. C. 280-279.
INVASION OF GREECE.

GALBA, Roman Emperor, A. D. 68-69.

GALEAZZO MARIO, Duke of Milan, A.D. 1466-1476.

GALERIUS, Roman Emperor, A. D. 305-311.

GALICIA (Spain), Settlement of Sueves and Vandals in.

See SPAIN: A. D. 409-414.

GALILEE.

The Hebrew name Galil, applied originally to a little section
of country, became in the Roman age, as Galilæa, the name of
the whole region in Palestine north of Samaria and west of the
river Jordan and the Sea of Galilee. Ewald interprets the name
as meaning the "march" or frontier land; but in Smith's
"Dictionary of the Bible" it is said to signify a "circle" or
"circuit." It had many heathen inhabitants and was called
Galilee of the Gentiles.

_H. Ewald,
History of Israel,
book 5, section 1._

GALLAS, The.

See AFRICA: THE INHABITING RACES;
and ABYSSINIA: 15th-19th CENTURIES.

GALLATIN, Albert, Negotiation of the Treaty of Ghent.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1814 (DECEMBER).

GALLDACHT.

See PALE, THE ENGLISH.

GALLEON OR GALEON. GALERA. GALEAZA. GALEASSES.

See CARAVELS;
also, ENGLAND: A. D. 1588;
also, PERU: A. D. 1550-1816.

GALLI, The.

See GAULS.

GALLIA.

See GAUL.

GALLIA BRACCATA, COMATA AND TOGATA.

"The antient historians make some allusion to another division
of Gaul, perhaps introduced by the soldiers, for it was
founded solely upon the costume of the inhabitants. Gallia
Togata, near the Rhone, comprehended the Gauls who had adopted
the toga and the Roman manners. In Gallia Comata, to the north
of the Loire, the inhabitants wore long plaited hair, which we
find to this day among the Bas Britons. Gallia Bracata, to the
south of the Loire, wore, for the national costume, trousers
reaching from the hips to the ancles, called 'braccæ.'"

_J. C. L. S. de Sismondi,
The French under the Merovingians,
translated by Bellingham,
chapter 2, note._

GALLIA CISALPINA.

See ROME: B. C. 390-347.

GALLICAN CHURCH: A. D. 1268.
The Pragmatic Sanction of St. Louis.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1268.

GALLICAN CHURCH: A. D. 1438.
The Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VII., affirming some of the
decrees of the reforming Council of Basel.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1438.

GALLICAN CHURCH: A. D. 1515-1518.
Abrogation of the Pragmatic Sanction.
The Concordat of Bologna.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1515-1518.

GALLICAN CHURCH: A. D. 1653-1713.
The conflict of Jesuits and Jansenists.
Persecution of the latter.
The Bull Unigenitus and its tyrannical enforcement.

See PORT ROYAL AND THE JANSENISTS.

GALLICAN CHURCH: A. D. 1791-1792.
The civil constitution of the clergy.
The oath prescribed by the National Assembly.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1789-1791; 1790-1791;
and 1791-1792.

GALLICAN CHURCH: A. D. 1793.
Suppression of Christian worship in Paris and other parts of
France.
The worship of Reason.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (NOVEMBER).

GALLICAN CHURCH: A. D. 1802.
The Concordat of Napoleon.
Its Ultramontane influence.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1801-1804.

GALLICAN CHURCH: A. D. 1833-1880.
The Church and the Schools.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: FRANCE: A. D. 1833-1889.

----------GALLICAN CHURCH: End----------

GALLICIA, The kingdom of.

See SPAIN: A. D. 713-737.

GALLIENUS, Roman Emperor, A. D. 253-268.

GALLOGLASSES.

The heavy-armed foot-soldiers of the
Irish in their battles with the
English during the 14th century.

See, also, RAPPAREE.

GALLS.

See IRELAND: 9TH-10TH CENTURIES.

GALLUS, Trebonianus, Roman Emperor, A. D. 251-253.

GAMA, Voyage of Vasco da.

See PORTUGAL: A. D. 1463-1498.

GAMBETTA AND THE DEFENSE OF FRANCE.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER),
and 1870-1871.

GAMMADION, The.

See TRI-SKELION.

GAMORI.

See GEOMORI.

GANAWESE OR KANAWHAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

GANDARIANS, The.

See GEDROSIANS.

GANDASTOGUES, OR CONESTOGAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SUSQUEHANNAS.

GANGANI, The.

See IRELAND, TRIBES OF EARLY CELTIC INHABITANTS.

{1410}

GANGWAY, The.

On the floor of the English House of Commons, "the long lines
of seats rise gradually on each side of the chair—those to
the Speaker's right being occupied by the upholders of the
Government, and those to the left accommodating the
Opposition. One length of seating runs in an unbroken line
beneath each of the side galleries, and these are known as the
'back benches.' The other lengths are divided into two nearly
equal parts by an unseated gap of about a yard wide. This is
'the gangway.' Though nothing more than a convenient means of
access for members, this space has come to be regarded as the
barrier that separates the thick and thin supporters of the
rival leaders from their less fettered colleagues—that is to
say, the steady men from the Radicals, Nationalists, and
free-lances generally."

_Popular Account of Parliamentary Procedure,
page 6._

GAON.-THE GAONATE.

See JEWS: 7th CENTURY.

GARAMANTES, The.

The ancient inhabitants of the north African region now called
Fezzan, were known as the Garamantes.

_E. H. Bunbury,
History of Ancient Geography,
chapter 8, section 1._

GARCIA,
King of Leon and the Asturias, or Oviedo, A. D. 910-914.

Garcia I., King of Navarre, 885-891.

Garcia II., King of Spain, 925-970.

Garcia III., King of Navarre, 1035-1054.

Garcia IV., King of Navarre, 1134-1150.

GARFIELD, General James A.
Campaign in Kentucky.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY; KENTUCKY-TENNESSEE).

Presidential election.
Administration.
Assassination.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1880, and 1881.

GARIBALD, King of the Lombards, A. D. 672-673.

GARIBALDI'S ITALIAN CAMPAIGNS.

See ITALY; A. D. 1848-:1849; 1856-1859;
1859-1861; 1862-1866; and 1867-1870.

GARIGLIANO, Battle of the (1503).

See ITALY: A. D. 1501-1504.

GARITIES, The.

See AQUITAINE: THE ANCIENT TRIBES.

GARRISON, William Lloyd, and the American Abolitionists.

See SLAVERY, NEGRO: A. D. 1828-1832.

GARTER, Knights of the Order of the.

"About this time [A. D. 1343] the king of England [Edward
III.] resolved to rebuild and embellish the great castle of
Windsor, which king Arthur had first founded in time past, and
where he had erected and established that noble round table
from whence so many gallant knights had issued forth, and
displayed the valiant prowess of their deeds at arms over the
world. King Edward, therefore, determined to establish an
order of knighthood, consisting of himself, his children, and
the most gallant knights in Christendom, to the number of
forty. He ordered it to be denominated 'knights of the blue
garter,' and that the feast should be celebrated every year at
Windsor, upon St. George's day. He summoned, therefore, all
the earls, barons, and knights of his realm, to inform them of
his intentions; they heard it with great pleasure; for it
appeared to them highly honourable, and capable of increasing
love and friendship. Forty knights were then elected,
according to report and estimation the bravest in Christendom,
who sealed, and swore to maintain and keep the feast and the
statutes which had been made. The king founded a chapel at
Windsor, in honour of St. George, and established canons,
there to serve God, with a handsome endowment. He then issued
his proclamation for this feast by his heralds, whom he sent
to France, Scotland, Burgundy, Hainault, Flanders, Brabant,
and the empire of Germany, and offered to all knights and
squires, that might come to this ceremony, passports to last
for fifteen days after it was over. The celebration of this
order was fixed for St. George's day next ensuing, to be held
at Windsor, 1344."

_Froissart (Johnes),
Chronicles,
book 1, chapter 100._

"The popular tradition, derived from Polydore Vergil, is that,
having a festival at Court, a lady chanced to drop her garter,
when it was picked up by the King. Observing that the incident
made the bye-standers smile significantly, Edward exclaimed in
a tone of rebuke, 'Honi soit qui mal y pense'—'Dishonoured
be he who thinks evil of it': and to prevent any further
innuendos, he tied the garter round his own knee. This
anecdote, it is true, has been characterized by some as an
improbable fable; why, we know not. … Be the origin of the
institution, however, what it may, no Order in Europe is so
ancient, none so illustrious, for 'it exceeds in majesty,
honour and fame all chivalrous fraternities in the world.' …
By a Statute passed on the 17th January, 1805, the Order is to
consist of the Sovereign and twenty-five Knights Companions,
together with such lineal descendants of George III. as may be
elected, always excepting the Prince of Wales, who is a
constituent part of the original institution. Special Statutes
have since, at different times, been proclaimed for the
admission of Sovereigns and extra Knights."

_Sir B. Burke,
Book of Orders of Knighthood,
page 98._

ALSO IN:
_J. Buswell,
Historical Account of the Knights of the Garter._

_C. M. Yonge,
Cameos from English History,
2d series, chapter 3._

GARUMNI, The Tribe of the.

See AQUITAINE: THE ANCIENT TRIBES.

GASCONY. GASCONS: Origin.

See AQUITAINE: A. D. 681-768.

GASCONY: A. D. 778.
The ambuscade at Roncesvalles.

See SPAIN: A. D. 778.

GASCONY: A. D. 781.
Embraced in Aquitaine.

See AQUITAINE: A. D. 781.

GASCONY: 11th Century.
The Founding of the Dukedom.

See BURGUNDY: A. D. 1032.

----------GASCONY: End----------

GASIND, The.

See COMITATUS.

GASPE, The burning of the.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1772.

GASTEIN, Convention of (1865).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1861-1866.

GATES, General Horatio, and the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1775 (MAY-AUGUST);
1777 (JULY-OCTOBER);
1777-1778; 1780 (FEBRUARY-AUGUST); 1780-1781.

GATH.

See PHILISTINES.

GATHAS, The.

See ZOROASTRIANS.

{1411}

GAU, OR GA, The.

"Next [after the Mark, in the settlements of the Germanic
peoples] in order of constitution, if not of time, is the
union of two, three, or more Marks in a federal bond for
purposes of a religious, judicial, or even political
character. The technical name for such a union is in Germany a
Gau or Bant; in England the ancient name Ga has been almost
universally superseded by that of Scir or Shire. For the most
part the natural divisions of the country are the divisions
also of the Ga; and the size of this depends upon such
accidental limits as well as upon the character and
dispositions of the several collective bodies which we have
called Marks. The Ga is the second and final form of unsevered
possession; for every larger aggregate is but the result of a
gradual reduction of such districts, under a higher political
or administrative unity, different only in degree and not in
kind from what prevailed individually in each. The kingdom is
only a larger Ga than ordinary; indeed the Ga itself was the
original kingdom. … Some of the modern shire-divisions of
England in all probability have remained unchanged from the
earliest times; so that here and there a now existent Shire
may be identical in territory with an ancient Ga. But it may
be doubted whether this observation can be very extensively
applied."

_J. M. Kemble,
The Saxons in England.
book 1, chapter 8._

GAUGAMELA, OR ARBELA, Battle of (B. C. 331).

See MACEDONIA: B. C. 384-380.

GAUL: described by Cæsar.

"Gallia, in the widest sense of the term, is divided into
three parts, one part occupied by the Belgae, a second by the
Aquitani, and a third by a people whom the Romans name Galli,
but in their own tongue they are named Celtae. These three
people differ in language and social institutions. The Garumna
(Garonne) is the boundary between the Aquitani and the Celtae:
the rivers Matrona (Marne, a branch of the Seine) and the
Sequana (Seine) separate the Celtae from the Belgae. … That
part of Gallia which is occupied by the Celtae begins at the
river Rhone: it is bounded by the Garonne, the Ocean and the
territory of the Belgae; on the side of the Sequani and the
Helvetii it also extends to the Rhine. It looks to the north.
The territory of the Belgae begins where that of the Celtae
ends: it extends to the lower part of the Rhine; it looks
towards the north and the rising sun. Aquitania extends from
the Garonne to the Pyrenean mountains and that part of the
Ocean which borders on Spain. It looks in a direction between
the setting sun and the north."

_Julius Cæsar,
Gallic Wars,
book 1, chapter 1;
translated by G. Long
(Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 8, chapter 22)._

GAUL: B. C. 125-121.
First Roman conquests.

See SALYES; ALLOBROGES; and ÆDUI.

GAUL: B. C. 58-51.
Cæsar's conquest.

Cæsar was consul for the year 695 A. U. (B. C. 59). At the
expiration of his consulship he secured, by vote of the
people, the government of the two Gauls (see ROME: B. C.
68-58), not for one year, which was the customary term, but
for five years—afterwards extended to ten. Cisalpine Gaul
(northern Italy) had been fully subjugated and was tranquil;
Transalpine Gaul (Gaul west and north of the Alps, or modern
France, Switzerland and Belgium) was troubled and threatening.
In Transalpine Gaul the Romans had made no conquests beyond
the Rhone, as yet, except along the coast at the south. The
country between the Alps and the Rhone, excepting certain
territories of Massilia (Marseilles) which still continued to
be a free city, in alliance with Rome, had been fully
appropriated and organized as a province—the Provence of
later times. The territory between the Rhone and the Cevennes
mountains was less fully occupied and controlled. Cæsar's
first proceeding as proconsul in Gaul was to arrest the
migration of the Helvetii, who had determined to abandon their
Swiss valleys and to seize some new territory in Gaul. He blocked
their passage through Roman Gaul, then followed them in their
movement eastward of the Rhone, attacked and defeated them
with great slaughter, and forced the small remnant to return
to their deserted mountain homes. The same year (B. C. 58) he
drove out of Gaul a formidable body of Suevic Germans who had
crossed the Rhine some years before under their king,
Ariovistus. They were almost annihilated. The next year (B. C.
57) he reduced to submission the powerful tribes of the
Belgian region, who had provoked attack by leaguing themselves
against the Roman intrusion in Gaul. The most obstinate of
those tribes—the Nervii—were destroyed. In the following
year (B. C. 56) Cæsar attacked and nearly exterminated the
Veneti, a remarkable maritime people, who occupied part of
Armorica (modern Brittany); he also reduced the coast tribes
northwards to submission, while one of his lieutenants,
Crassus, made a conquest of Aquitania. The conquest of Gaul
was now apparently complete, and next year (B. C. 55), after
routing and cutting to pieces another horde of Germanic
invaders—the Usipetes and Tenctheri—who had ventured across
the lower Rhine, Cæsar traversed the channel and invaded
Britain. This first invasion, which had been little more than
a reconnoissance, was repeated the year following (B. C. 54),
with a larger force. It was an expedition having small
results, and Cæsar returned from it in the early autumn to
find his power in Gaul undermined everywhere by rebellious
conspiracies. The first outbreak occurred among the Belgæ, and
found its vigorous leader in a young chief of the Eburones,
Ambiorix by name. Two legions, stationed in the midst of the
Eburones, were cut to pieces while attempting to retreat. But
the effect of this great disaster was broken by the bold
energy of Cæsar, who led two legions, numbering barely 7,000
men, to the rescue of his lieutenant Cicero (brother of the
orator) whose single legion, camped in the Nervian territory,
was surrounded and besieged by 60,000 of the enemy. Cæsar and
his 7,000 veterans sufficed to rout the 60,000 Belgians.
Proceeding with similar vigor to further operations, and
raising new legions to increase his force, the proconsul had
stamped the rebellion out before the close of the year 58 B.
C., and the Eburones, who led in it, had ceased to exist. But
the next year (B. C. 52) brought upon him a still more serious
rising, of the Gallic tribes in central Gaul, leagued with the
Belgians. Its leader was Vercingetorix, a gallant and able
young chief of the Arverni. It was begun by the Carnutes, who
massacred the Roman settlers in their town of Genabum
(probably modern Orleans, but some say Gien, farther up the
Loire). Cæsar was on the Italian side of the Alps when the
news reached him, and the Gauls expected to be able to prevent
his joining the scattered Roman forces in their country. But
his energy baffled them, as it had baffled them many times
before. He was across the Alps, across the Rhone, over the
Cevennes—through six feet of snow in the passes—and in
their midst, with such troops as he could gather in the
Province, before they dreamed of lying in wait for him. Then,
leaving most of these forces with Decimus Brutus, in a strong
position, he stole away secretly, recrossed the Cevennes, put
himself at the head of a small body of cavalry at Vienne on
the Rhone, and rode straight through the country of the
insurgents to join his veteran legions, first at Langres and
afterwards at Sens.
{1412}
In a few weeks he was at the head of a strong army, had taken
the guilty town of Genabum and had given it up to fire and the
sword. A little later the capital of the Bituriges, Avaricum
(modern Bourges), suffered the same fate. Next, attempting to
reduce the Arvernian town of Gergovia, he met with a check and
was placed in a serious strait. But with the able help of his
lieutenant Labienus, who defeated a powerful combination of
the Gauls near Lutetia (modern Paris), he broke the toils,
reunited his army, which he had divided, routed Vercingetorix
in a great battle fought in the valley of the Vingeanne, and
shut him up, with 80,000 men, in the city of Alesia. The siege
of Alesia (modern Alise-Sainte-Reine, west of Dijon) which
followed, was the most extraordinary of Cæsar's military
exploits in Gaul. Holding his circumvallation of the town,
against 80,000 within its walls and thrice as many swarming
outside of it, he scattered the latter and forced the
surrender of the former. His triumph was his greatest shame.
Like a very savage, he dragged the knightly Vercingetorix in
his captive train, exhibited him at a subsequent "triumph" in
Rome, and then sent him to be put to death in the ghastly
Tullianum. The fall of Alesia practically ended the revolt;
although even the next year found some fighting to be done,
and one stronghold of the Cadurci, Uxellodunum (modern
Puy-d'Issolu, near Vayrac), held out with great obstinacy. It
was taken by tapping with a tunnel the spring which supplied
the besieged with water, and Cæsar punished the obstinacy of
the garrison by cutting off their hands. Gaul was then deemed
to be conquered and pacified, and Cæsar was prepared for the
final contest with his rivals and enemies at Rome.

_Cæsar,
Gallic War._

ALSO IN:
_G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 4._

_Napoleon III.,
History of Cæsar._

_C. Merivale,
History of the Romans under the Empire,
chapters 6-7, 10, and 12 (volumes 1-2)._

_T. A. Dodge,
Cæsar,
chapters 4-25._

GAUL: 2d-3d Century.
Introduction of Christianity.

See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 100-312 (GAUL).

GAUL: A. D. 277.
The invaders driven back by Probus.

"The most important service which Probus [Roman Emperor, A. D.
276-282] rendered to the republic was the deliverance of Gaul,
and the recovery of seventy flourishing cities oppressed by
the barbarians of Germany, who, since the death of Aurelian,
had ravaged that great province with impunity. Among the
various multitude of those fierce invaders, we may
distinguish, with some degree of clearness, three great
armies, or rather nations, successively vanquished by the
valour of Probus. He drove back the Franks into their
morasses; a descriptive circumstance from whence we may infer
that the confederacy known by the manly appellation of 'Free'
already occupied the flat maritime country, intersected and
almost overflown by the stagnating waters of the Rhine, and
that several tribes of the Frisians and Batavians had acceded
to their alliance. He vanquished the Burgundians [and the
Lygians]. … The deliverance of Gaul is reported to have cost
the lives of 400,000 of the invaders—a work of labour to the
Romans, and of expense to the emperor, who gave a piece of
gold for the head of every barbarian."

_E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 12._

See, also, LYGIANS.

GAUL: A. D. 287.
Insurrection of the Bagauds.

See BAGAUDS;
also, DEDITITIUS.

GAUL: A. D. 355-361.
Julian's recovery of the province from the barbarians.

During the civil wars and religious quarrels which followed
the death of Constantine the Great—more especially in the
three years of the usurpation of Magnentius, in the west (A.
D. 350-353), Gaul was not only abandoned, for the most part,
to the barbarians of Germany, but Franks and Alemanni were
invited by Constantius to enter it. "In a little while a large
part of the north and east of Gaul were in their almost
undisputed possession. The Alamans seized upon the countries
which are now called Alsace and Lorraine; the Franks secured
for themselves Batavia and Toxandria: forty-five flourishing
cities, among them Cologne, Treves, Spires, Worms, and
Strasburg, were ravaged; and, in short, from the sources of
the Rhine to its mouth, forty miles inland, there remained no
safety for the population but in the strongly fortified
towns." In this condition of the Gallic provinces, Julian, the
young nephew of the emperor, was raised to the rank of Cæsar
and sent thither with a trifling force of men to take the
command. "During an administration of six years [A. D.
355-361] this latest Cæsar revived in Gaul the memory of the
indefatigable exploits and the vigorous rule of the first
Cæsar. Insufficient and ill-disciplined as his forces were,
and baffled and betrayed as he was by those who should have
been his aids, he drove the fierce and powerful tribes of the
Alamans, who were now the hydra of the western provinces,
beyond the Upper Rhine; the Chamaves, another warlike tribe,
he pursued into the heart of their native forests; while the
still fiercer and more warlike Franks were dislodged from
their habitations on the Meuse, to accept of conditions from
his hands. … A part of these, called the Salians, and
destined to figure hereafter, were allowed to settle in
permanence in Toxandria, between the Meuse and the Scheld,
near the modern Tongres. … By three successful expeditions
beyond the Rhine [he] restored to their friends a multitude of
Roman captives, recovered the broken and down-trodden lines of
the empire, humiliated many of the proud chiefs of the
Germans, and impressed a salutary awe and respect upon their
truculent followers. … He spent the intervals of peace which
his valor procured in recuperating the wasted energies of the
inhabitants. Their dilapidated cities were repaired, the
excesses of taxation retrenched, the deficient harvests
compensated by large importations of corn from Britain, and
the resources of suspended industry stimulated into new
action. Once more, says Libanius, the Gauls ascended from the
tombs to marry, to travel, to enjoy the festivals, and to
celebrate the public games."

_P. Godwin,
History of France: Ancient Gaul,
book 2, chapter 7._

ALSO IN:
_E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 19._

GAUL: A. D. 365-367.
Expulsion of the Alemanni by Valentinian.

See ALEMANNI: A. D. 365-367.

GAUL: A. D. 378.
Invasion of the Alemanni.
Their destruction by Gratian.

See ALEMANNI: A. D. 378.

{1413}

GAUL: A. D. 406-409.
The breaking of the Rhine barrier.

The same year (A. D. 406) in which Radagaisus, with his motley
barbaric horde, invaded Italy and was destroyed by Stilicho, a
more fatal assault was made upon Gaul. Two armies, in which
were gathered up a vast multitude of Suevi, Vandals, Alans and
Burgundians, passed the Rhine. The Franks opposed them as
faithful allies of the Roman power, and defeated a Vandal army
in one great battle, where 20,000 of the invaders were slain;
but the Alans came opportunely to the rescue of their friends
and forced the Frank defenders of Gaul to give way. "The
victorious confederates pursued their march, and on the last
day of the year, in a season when the waters of the Rhine were
most probably frozen, they entered without opposition the
defenceless provinces of Gaul. This memorable passage of the
Suevi, the Vandals, the Alani, and the Burgundians, who never
afterwards retreated, may be considered as the fall of the
Roman empire in the countries beyond the Alps; and the
barriers which had so long separated the savage and the
civilized nations of the earth were, from that fatal moment,
levelled with the ground. … The flourishing city of Mentz
was surprised and destroyed, and many thousand Christians were
inhumanly massacred in the church. Worms perished after a long
and obstinate siege; Strasburg, Spires, Rheims, Tournay,
Arras, Amiens, experienced the cruel oppression of the German
yoke; and the consuming flames of war spread from the banks of
the Rhine over the greatest part of the seventeen provinces of
Gaul. That rich and extensive country, as far as the ocean,
the Alps, and the Pyrenees, was delivered to the barbarians,
who drove before them in a promiscuous crowd the bishop, the
senator, and the virgin, laden with the spoils of their houses
and altars."

_E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 30._

GAUL: A. D. 407-411.
Reign of the usurper Constantine.

See BRITAIN: A. D. 407.

GAUL: A. D. 410-419.
Establishment of the Visigoths in the kingdom of Toulouse.

See GOTHS (VISIGOTHS): A. D. 410-419.

GAUL: A. D. 410-420.
The Franks join in the attack on Gaul.

See FRANKS: A. D. 410-420.

GAUL: 5th-8th Centuries.
Barbarities of the Frank conquest.

The conquests of the Franks in Gaul, under Clovis, began in
486 and ended with his death in 511 (see FRANKS: A. D.
481-511). "In the year 532, Theoderik, one of the sons and
successors of Chlodowig, said to those Frankish warriors whom
he commanded: 'Follow me as far as Auvergne, and I will make
you enter a country where you will take as much gold and
silver as you possibly can desire; where you can carry away in
abundance flocks, slaves, and garments.' The Franks took up
arms and once more crossing the Loire, they advanced on the
territory of the Bituriges and Arvernes. These paid with
interest for the resistance they had dared to the first
invasion. Everything amongst them was devastated; the churches
and monasteries were razed to their foundations. The young men
and women were dragged, their hands bound, after the luggage
to be sold as slaves. The inhabitants of this unfortunate
country perished in large numbers or were ruined by the
pillage. Nothing was left them of what they had possessed,
says an ancient chronicle, except the land, which the
barbarians could not carry away. Such were the neighbourly
relations kept up by the Franks with the Gallic populations
which had remained beyond their limits. Their conduct with
respect to the natives of the northern provinces was hardly
less hostile. When Hilperik, the son of Chlother, wished, in
the year 584, to send his daughter in marriage to the king of
the West Goths, or Visigoths, settled in Spain, he came to
Paris and carried away from the houses belonging to the 'fisc'
a great number of men and women, who were heaped up in
chariots to accompany and serve the bride elect. Those who
refused to depart, and wept, were put in prison: several
strangled themselves in despair. Many people of the best
families enlisted by force into this procession, made their
will, and gave their property to the churches. 'The son,' says
a contemporary, 'was separated from his father, the mother
from her daughter; they departed sobbing, and pronouncing deep
curses; so many persons in Paris were in tears that it might
be compared to the desolation of Egypt.' In their domestic
misfortunes the kings of the Franks sometimes felt remorse,
and trembled at the evil they had done. … But this momentary
repentance soon yielded to the love of riches, the most
violent passion of the Franks. Their incursions into the south
of Gaul recommenced as soon as that country, recovered from its
terrors and defeats, no longer admitted their garrisons nor
tax collectors. Karle, to whom the fear of his arms gave the
surname of Marteau, made an inroad as far as Marseilles; he
took possession of Lyons, Arles, and Vienne, and carried off
an immense booty to the territory of the Franks. When this
same Karle, to insure his frontiers, went to fight the
Saracens in Aquitania, he put the whole country to fire and
sword; he burnt Bérgiers, Agde, and Nûnes; the arenas of the
latter city still bear traces of the fire. At death of Karle,
his two sons, Karlemann and Peppin, continued the great
enterprise of replacing the inhabitants of the south, to whom
the name of Romans was still given, under the yoke of the
Franks. … Southern Gaul was to the sons of the Franks what
entire Gaul had been to their fathers; a country, the riches
and climate of which attracted them incessantly, and saw them
return as enemies, as soon as it did not purchase peace of
them."

_A. Thierry,
Narratives of the Merovingian Era, Historical Essays, etc.,
essay 24._

GAUL: 5th-10th Centuries.
The conquerors and the conquered.
State of society under the barbarian rule.
The evolution of Feudalism.

"After the conclusion of the great struggles which took place
in the fourth and fifth centuries, whether between the German
conquerors and the last forces of the empire, or between the
nations which had occupied different portions of Gaul, until
the Franks remained sole masters of the country, two races,
two populations, which had nothing in common but religion,
appear forcibly brought together, and, as it were, face to
face with each other, in one political community. The
Gallo-Roman population presents under the same law very
different and very unequal conditions; the barbarian
population comprises, together with its own peculiar
classifications of ranks and conditions, distinct laws and
nationalities. In the first we find citizens absolutely free,
coloni, or husbandmen belonging to the lands of a proprietor,
and domestic slaves deprived of all civil rights; in the
second, we see the Frankish race divided into two tribes, each
having its own peculiar law [the law of the Salic Franks or Salic
law, and the law of the Ripuarian Franks or Ripuarian law];
the Burgundians, the Goths, and the rest of the Teutonic
races, who became subjected, either of their own accord or by
force, to, the Frankish empire, governed by other and entirely
different laws; but among them all, as well as among the
Franks, we find at least three social conditions—two degrees
of liberty, and slavery.
{1414}
Among these incongruous states of existence, the criminal law
of the dominant race established, by means of the scale of
damages for crime or personal injury, a kind of hierarchy—
the starting-point of that movement towards an assimilation
and gradual transformation, which, after the lapse of four
centuries, from the fifth to the tenth, gave rise to the
society of the feudal times. The first rank in the civil order
belonged to the man of Frankish origin, and to the Barbarian who
lived under the law of the Franks; in the second rank was
placed the Barbarian, who lived under the law of his own
country; next came the native freeman and proprietor, the
Roman possessor, and, in the same degree, the Lidus or German
colonus; after them, the Roman tributary—i. e., the native
colonus; and, last of all, the slave, without distinction of
origin. These various classes, separated on the one hand by
distance of rank, on the other by difference of laws, manners,
and language, were far from being equally distributed between
the cities and the rural districts. All that was elevated in
the Gallo-Roman population, of whatever character it might be,
was found in the cities, where its noble, rich, and
industrious families dwelt, surrounded by their domestic
slaves; and, among the people of that race, the only constant
residents in the country were the half-servile coloni and the
agricultural slaves. On the contrary, the superior class of
the German population established itself in the country, where
each family, independent and proprietary, was maintained on
its own domain by the labour of the Lidi whom it had brought
thither, or of the old race of coloni who belonged to the
soil. The only Germans who resided in the cities were a small
number of officers in the service of the Crown, and of
individuals without family and patrimony, who, in spite of
their original habits, sought a livelihood by following some
employment. The social superiority of the dominant race rooted
itself firmly in the localities inhabited by them, and passed,
as has been already remarked, from the cities to the rural
districts. By degrees, also, it came to pass that the latter
drew off from the former the upper portion of their
population, who, in order to raise themselves still higher,
and to mix with the conquerors, imitated, as far as they were
able, their mode of life. … While Barbarism was thus
occupying or usurping all the vantage points of the social
state, and civil life in the intermediate classes was arrested
in its progress, and sinking gradually to the lowest
condition, even to that of personal servitude, an ameliorating
movement already commenced before the fall of the empire,
still continued, and declared itself more and more loudly. The
dogma of a common brotherhood in the eyes of God, and of one
sole redemption for all mankind, preached by the Church to the
faithful of every race, touched the heart and awakened the
mind in favour of the slave, and, in consequence,
enfranchisements became more frequent, or a treatment more
humane was adopted on the part of the masters, whether Gauls
or Germans by origin. The latter, moreover, had imported from
their country, where the mode of life was simple and without
luxury, usages favourable to a modified slavery. The rich
barbarian was waited upon by free persons—by the children of
his relatives, his clients and his friends; the tendency of
his national manners, different from that of the Roman,
induced him to send the slave out of his house, and to
establish him as a labourer or artisan on some portion of land
to which he then became permanently attached, and the
destination of which he followed, whether it were inherited or
sold. … Domestic slavery made the man a chattel, a mere
piece of moveable property. The slave, settled on a spot of
land, from that time entered into the category of real
property. At the same time that this last class, which
properly bore the name of serfs, was increased at the expense
of the first, the classes of the coloni and Lidi would
naturally multiply simultaneously, by the very casualties of
ruin and adverse circumstances which, at a period of incessant
commotions, injured the condition of the freemen. … In the
very heart of the Barbarian society, the class of small
proprietors, which had originally formed its strength and
glory, decreased, and finally became extinct by sinking into
vassalage, or a state of still more ignoble dependence, which
partook more or less of the character of actual servitude. …
The freemen depressed towards servitude met the slave who had
reached a sort of half liberty. Thus, through the whole extent
of Gaul, was formed a vast body of agricultural labourers and
rural artisans, whose lot, though never uniform, was brought
more and more to a level of equality; and the creative wants
of society produced a new sphere of industry in the country,
while the cities remained stationary, or sank more and more
into decay. … On every large estate where improvement
flourished, the cabins of those employed, Lidi, coloni or
slaves, grouped as necessity or convenience suggested, were
multiplied and peopled more numerously, till they assumed the
form of a hamlet. When these hamlets were situated in a
favourable position … they continued to increase till they
became villages. … The building of a church soon raised the
village to the rank of a parish; and, as a consequence, the
new parish took its place among the rural circonscriptions.
… Thence sprung, altogether spontaneously, under the
sanction of the intendant, joined to that of the priest, rude
outlines of a municipal organization, in which the church
became the depository of the acts which, in accordance with
the Roman law, were inscribed on the registers of the city. It
is in this way that beyond the towns, the cities, and the
boroughs, where the remains of the old social condition
lingered in an increasing state of degradation, elements of
future improvement were formed. … This modification, already
considerably advanced in the ninth century, was completed in
the course of the tenth. At that period, the last class of the
Gallo-Frankish society disappeared—viz., that of persons
held as chattels, bought, exchanged, transferred from one
place to another, like any other kind of moveable goods. The
slave now belonged to the soil rather than to the person; his
service, hitherto arbitrary, was changed into customary dues
and regulated employment; he had a settled abode, and, in
consequence, a right of possession in the soil on which he was
dependent. This is the earliest form in which we distinctly
trace the first impress of the modern world upon the civil
state.
{1415}
The word serf henceforward took its definite meaning; it
became the generic name of a mixed condition of servitude and
freedom, in which we find blended together the states of the
colonus and Lidus—two names which occur less and less
frequently in the tenth century, till they entirely disappear.
This century, the point to which all the social efforts of the
four preceding ones which had elapsed since the Frankish
conquest had been tending, saw the intestine struggle between
the Roman and German manners brought to a conclusion by an
important revolution. The latter definitively prevailed, and
from their triumph arose the feudal system; that is to say, a
new form of the state, a new constitution of property and
domestic life, a parcelling out of the sovereignty and
jurisdiction, all the public powers transformed into demesnial
privileges, the idea of nobility devoted to the profession of
arms, and that of ignobility to industry and labour. By a
remarkable coincidence, the complete establishment of this
system is the epoch when the distinction of races terminates
in Frankish Gaul—when all the legal consequences of
diversity of origin between Barbarians and Romans, conquerors
and subjects, disappear. The law ceases to be personal, and
becomes local; the German codes and the Roman code itself are
replaced by custom; it is the territory and not the descent
which distinguishes the inhabitant of the Gallic soil;
finally, instead of national distinctions, one mixed
population appears, to which the historian is able
henceforward to give the name of French."

_A. Thierry,
Formation and Progress of the Tiers État in France,
volume 1, chapter 1._

GAUL: A. D. 412-453.
The mixed administration, Roman and barbarian.

"A prætorian prefect still resided at Trèves; a vicar of the
seventeen Gallic provinces at Aries: each of these provinces
had its Roman duke; each of the hundred and fifteen cities of
Gaul had its count; each city its curia, or municipality. But,
collaterally with this Roman organisation, the barbarians,
assembled in their 'mallum,' of which their kings were
presidents, decided on peace and war, made laws, or
administered justice. Each division of the army had its Graf
Jarl, or Count; each subdivision its centenary, or
hundred-man; and all these fractions of the free population
had the same right of deciding by suffrage in their own
mallums, or peculiar courts, all their common affairs. In
cases of opposition between the barbarian and the Roman
jurisdiction, the overbearing arrogance of the one, and the
abject baseness of the other, soon decided the question of
supremacy. In some provinces the two powers were not
concurrent: there were no barbarians between the Loire and the
Meuse, nor between the Alps and the Rhone; but the feebleness
of the Roman government was only the more conspicuous. A few
great proprietors cultivated a part of the province with the
aid of slaves; the rest was desert, or only inhabited by
Bagaudæ, runaway slaves, who lived by robbery. Some towns
still maintained a show of opulence, but not one gave the
slightest sign of strength; not one enrolled its militia, nor
repaired its fortifications. … Honorius wished to confer on
the cities of southern Gaul a diet, at which they might have
deliberated on public affairs: he did not even find public
spirit enough to accept the offered privilege."

_J. C. L. de Sismondi,
Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 7 (volume 1)._

GAUL: A. D. 451.
Attila's invasion.

See HUNS: A. D. 451.

GAUL: A. D. 453-484.
Extension of the Visigothic kingdom.

See GOTHS (VISIGOTHS): A. D. 453-484.

GAUL: A. D. 457-486.
The last Roman sovereignty.