Chapter CCCXCVII: Section 7 (25)

See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (JANUARY-MARCH),
and (MARCH-APRIL).

SCANDINAVIAN STATES: (Norway): A. D. 1814-1815.
The Norwegian constitution under the union with Sweden.

"When, by the treaty of Kiel in 1814, Norway was taken from
Denmark, and handed over to Sweden, the Norwegians roused
them·selves to once more assert their nationality. The Swedes
appeared in force, by land and sea, upon the frontiers of
Norway. It was not, however, until the latter country had been
guaranteed complete national independence that she consented
to a union of the countries under the one crown. The agreement
was made, and the constitution of Norway granted on the 17th
of May 1814, at which date the contemporary history of Norway
begins. … The Fundamental Law of the constitution (Grundlöv),
which almost every peasant farmer now-a-days has framed and
hung up in the chief room of his house, bears the date the 4th
of November 1814. The Act of Union with Sweden is dated the
6th of August 1815. The union of the two states is a union of
the crown alone. … Sweden and Norway form, like Great Britain,
a hereditary limited monarchy. One of the clauses in the Act
of Union provides that the king of the joint countries must
reside for a certain part of the year in Norway. But, as a
matter of fact, this period is a short one. In his absence,
the king is represented by the Council of State (Statsraad),
which must be composed entirely of Norwegians, and consist of
two Ministers of State (Cabinet Ministers), and nine other
Councillors of State. As with us, the king personally can do
no wrong; the responsibility for his acts rests with his
ministers. Of the State Council, or Privy Council (above
spoken of), three members, one a Cabinet Minister, and two
ordinary members of the Privy Council, are always in
attendance upon the king, whether he is residing in Norway or
Sweden. The rest of the Council forms the Norwegian Government
resident in the country. All functionaries are appointed by
the king, with the ad·vice of this Council of State. The
officials, who form what we should call the Government (as
distinguished from what we should call the Civil Service),
together with the préfets (Amtmen) and the higher grades of
the army are, nominally, removable by the king; but, If
removed, they continue to draw two-thirds of their salary
until their case has come before Parliament (the Stor-thing,
Great Thing), which decides upon their pensions. … In 1876 the
number of electors to the Storthing were under 140,000, not
more than 7.7 per cent. of the whole population. So that the
franchise was by no means a very wide one. … In foreign
affairs only does Norway not act as an independent nation.
There is a single foreign minister for the two countries and
he is usually a Swede. For the purposes of internal
administration, Norway is divided into twenty districts,
called Amter—which we may best translate 'Prefectures.' Of
these, the two chief towns of the country, Christiania (with
its population of 150,000) and Bergen (population about
50,000) form each a separate Amt."

_C. F. Keary,
Norway and the Norwegians,
chapter 13._

See CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY.

SCANDINAVIAN STATES: (Denmark): A. D. 1815.
Swedish Pomerania sold to Prussia.

See VIENNA, CONGRESS.

{2833}

SCANDINAVIAN STATES: (Sweden and Norway): A. D. 1818.
Accession of Charles XIV. (Bernadotte).

SCANDINAVIAN STATES: (Denmark): A. D. 1839.
Accession of Christian VIII.

SCANDINAVIAN STATES: (Sweden and Norway): A. D. 1844.
Accession of Oscar I.

SCANDINAVIAN STATES: (Denmark): A. D. 1848.
Accession of Frederick VII.

SCANDINAVIAN STATES: (Denmark): A. D. 1848-1862.
The Schleswig-Holstein question.
First war with Prussia.

"The two Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein lie to the south of
modern Denmark. Holstein, the more southern of the two, is
exclusively German in its population. Schleswig, the more
northern, contains a mixed population of Danes and Germans. In
the course of the 14th century Schleswig was conquered by
Denmark, but ceded to Count Gerard of Holstein—the
Constitution of Waldemar providing that the two Duchies should
be under one Lord, but that they should never be united to
Denmark. This is the first fact to realise in the complex
history of the Schleswig-Holstein question. The line of Gerard
of Holstein expired in 1375. It was succeeded by a branch of
the house of Oldenburg. In 1448 a member of this house, the
nephew of the reigning Duke, was elected to the throne of
Denmark. The reigning Duke procured in that year a
confirmation of the compact that Schleswig should never be
united with Denmark. Dying without issue in 1459, the Duke was
succeeded, by the election of the Estates, by his nephew
Christian I. of Denmark. In electing Christian, however, the
Estates compelled him in 1460 to renew the compact confirmed
in 1448. And, though Duchies and Crown were thenceforward
united, the only link between them was the sovereign. Even
this link could possibly be severed. For the succession in the
Duchy was secured to the male heir in direct contradiction of
the law of Denmark. … It would complicate this narrative if
stress were laid on the various changes in the relations
between Kingdom and Duchies which were consequent on the
unsettled state of Europe during the three succeeding
centuries. It is sufficient to say that, by a treaty made in
1773, the arrangements concluded more than 300 years before
were confirmed. Schleswig-Holstein reverted once more to the
King of Denmark under exactly the same conditions as in the
time of Christian I., who had expressly recognised that he
governed them as Duke, that is, by virtue of their own law of
succession. Such an arrangement was not likely to be respected
amidst the convulsions which affected Europe in the
commencement of the present century. In 1806 Christian VII.
took advantage of the disruption of the German Empire formally
to incorporate the Duchies into his Kingdom. No one was in a
position to dispute the act of the monarch. In 1815, however,
the King of Denmark, by virtue of his rights in Holstein and
Lauenburg, joined the Confederation of the Rhine; and the
nobility of Holstein, brought in this way into fresh
connection with Germany, appealed to the German Diet. But the
Diet, in the first quarter of the 19th century, was subject to
influences opposed to the rights of nationalities. It declined
to interfere, and the union of Duchies and Kingdom was
maintained. Christian VII. was succeeded in 1808 by his son
Frederick VI., who was followed in 1839 by his cousin
Christian VIII. The latter monarch had only one son,
afterwards Frederick VII., who, though twice married, had no
children. On his death, if no alteration had been made, the
crown of Denmark would have passed to the female line—the
present reigning dynasty —while the Duchies, by the old
undisputed law, would have reverted to a younger branch, which
descended through males to the house of Augustenburg. With
this prospect before them it became very desirable for the
Danes to amalgamate the Duchies; and in the year 1844 the
Danish Estates almost unanimously adopted a motion that the
King should proclaim Denmark, Schleswig, Holstein, and
Lauenburg one indivisible State. In 1846 the King put forth a
declaration that there was no doubt that the Danish law of
succession prevailed in Schleswig. He admitted that there was
more doubt respecting Holstein. But he promised to use his
endeavours to obtain the recognition of the integrity of
Denmark as a collective State. Powerless alone against the
Danes and their sovereign, Holstein appealed to the Diet; and
the Diet took up the quarrel, and reserved the right of
enforcing its legitimate authority in case of need. Christian
VIII. died in .January 1848. His son, Frederick VII., the last
of his line, grasped the tiller of the State at a critical
moment. Crowns, before a month was over, were tumbling off the
heads of half the sovereigns of Europe; and Denmark, shaken by
these events, felt the full force of the revolutionary
movement. Face to face with revolution at home and Germany
across the frontier, the new King tried to cut instead of
untying the Gordian knot. He separated Holstein from
Schleswig, incorporating the latter in Denmark but allowing
the former under its own constitution to form part of the
German Confederation. Frederick VII. probably hoped that the
German Diet would be content with the half-loaf which he
offered it. The Diet., however, replied to the challenge by
formally incorporating Schleswig in Germany, and by committing
to Prussia the office of mediation.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1848 (MARCH-SEPTEMBER).

War broke out, but the arms of Prussia were crippled by the
revolution which shook her throne. The sword of Denmark, under
these circumstances, proved victorious; and the Duchies were
ultimately compelled to submit to the decision which force had
pronounced. These events gave rise to the famous protocol
which was signed in London, in August 1850, by England,
France, Austria, Russia, Sweden, and Denmark. This document
settled the question, so far as diplomacy could determine it,
in the interests of Denmark. The unity of Denmark, Schleswig,
Holstein and Lauenburg was secured by a uniform law of
succession, and their internal affairs were placed, as far as
practicable, under a common administration. The protocol of
1850 was signed by Lord Palmerston during the Russell
Administration. It was succeeded by the treaty of 1852, which
was concluded by Lord Malmesbury. This treaty, to which all
the great powers were parties, was the logical consequence of
the protocol. Under it the succession to Kingdom and Duchies
was assigned to Prince Christian of Glücksburg, the present
reigning King of Denmark. The integrity of the whole Danish
Monarchy was declared permanent; but the rights of the German
Confederation with respect to Holstein and Schleswig were
reserved.
{2834}
The declaration was made in accordance with the views of
Russia, England, and France; the reservation was inserted in
the interests of the German powers; and in a manifesto, which
was communicated to the German Courts, the King of Denmark
laid down elaborate rules for the treatment and government of
the Duchies. Thus, while the succession to the Danish throne
and the integrity of Denmark had been secured by the protocol
of 1850 and the treaty of 1852, the elaborate promises of the
Danish King, formally communicated to the German powers, had
given the latter a pretext for contending that these pledges
were at least as sacred as the treaty. And the next ten years
made the pretext much more formidable than it seemed in 1852.
… The Danes endeavoured to extricate themselves from a
constantly growing embarrassment by repeating the policy of
1848, by granting, under what was known as the Constitution of
1855, autonomous institutions to Holstein, by consolidating
the purely Danish portions of the Monarchy, and by
incorporating Schleswig, which was partly Danish and partly
German, in Denmark. But the German inhabitants of Schleswig
resented this arrangement. They complained of the suppression
of their language and the employment of Danish functionaries,
and they argued that, under the engagements which had been
contracted between 1851 and 1852, Holstein had a voice in
constitutional changes of this character. This argument added
heat to a dispute already acute. For it was now plain that,
while the German Diet claimed the right to interfere in
Holstein, Holstein asserted her claim to be heard on the
affairs of the entire Kingdom."

_S. Walpole,
Life of Lord John Russell,
chapter 30 (volume 2)._

In the first period of the war of 1848-9, the only important
battle was fought at Duppeln, June 5, 1848. The Prussians were
superior in land forces, but the Danes were able to make use
of a flotilla of gunboats in defending their strong position.
"After a useless slaughter, both parties remained nearly in
the same position as they had occupied at the commencement of
the conflict." The war was suspended in August by an
armistice—that of Malmö—but was renewed in the April
following. "On the 20th April [1849] the Prussians invaded
Jutland with 48 battalions, 48 guns, and 2,000 horse; and the
Danish generals, unable to make head against such a crusade,
retired through the town of Kolding, which was fortified and
commanded an important bridge that was abandoned to the
invaders. The Danes, however, returned, and after a bloody
combat dislodged the Prussians, but were finally obliged to
evacuate it by the fire of the German mortars, which reduced
the town to ashes. On the 3d May the Danes had their revenge,
in the defeat of a large body of the Schleswig insurgents by a
Danish corps near the fortress of Fredericia, with the loss of
340 men. A more important advantage was gained by them on the
6th July," over the Germans who were besieging Fredericia.
"The loss of the Germans in this disastrous affair was 96
officers and 3,250 men killed and wounded, with their whole
siege-artillery and stores. … This brilliant victory was
immediately followed by the retreat of the Germans from nearly
the whole of Jutland. A convention was soon after concluded at
Berlin, which established an armistice for six months," and
which was followed by the negotiations and treaties described
above. But hostilities were not yet at an end; for the
insurgents of Schleswig and Holstein remained in arms, and
were said to receive almost open encouragement and aid from
Prussia. Their army, 32,000 strong, occupied Idstedt and
Wedelspang. They were attacked at the former place, on the
25th of July, 1850, by the Danes, and defeated after a bloody
conflict. "The loss on both sides amounted to nearly 8,000
men, or about one in eight of the troops engaged; a prodigious
slaughter, unexampled in European war since the battle of
Waterloo. Of these, nearly 3,000, including 85 officers, were
killed or wounded on the side of the Danes, and 5,000 on that
of the insurgents, whose loss in officers was peculiarly
severe."

_Sir A. Alison,
History of Europe, 1815-1852,
chapter 53._

From 1855 to 1862 the history of Denmark was uneventful. But
in the next year King Frederick VII. died, and the Treaty of
London, which had settled the succession upon Prince Christian
of Glücksburg, failed to prevent the reopening of the
Schleswig-Holstein question.

ALSO IN:
_C. A. Gosch,
Denmark and Germany since 1815,
chapters 3-9._

_A Forgotten War
(Spectator, September 22, 1894, reviewing Count von
Moltke's "Geschichte des Krieges gegen Dänemark, 1848-49 "). _

SCANDINAVIAN STATES: (Denmark-Iceland): A. D. 1849-1874.
The Danish constitution.
Relations of Iceland to Denmark.

Denmark became a constitutional monarchy in 1849. The
principal provisions of the Constitution are these: Every king
of Denmark, before he can assume the government of the
monarchy, must deliver a written oath that he will observe the
constitution. He alone is invested with the executive power,
but the legislative he exercises conjointly with the Assembly
(Rigsdag). He can declare war and make peace, enter and
renounce alliances. But he cannot, without the consent of the
Assembly, sign away any of the possessions of the kingdom or
encumber it with any State obligations. … The king's person is
sacred and inviolable; he is exempt from all responsibility.
The ministers form the Council of State, of which the king is
the president, and where, by right, the heir-apparent has a
seat. The king has an absolute veto. The Rigsdag (Assembly)
meets every year, and cannot be prorogued till the session has
lasted for two months at least. It consists of two
Chambers—the Upper Chamber, 'Landsting,' and the Lower
Chamber, 'Folketing.' The Upper Chamber consists of 66
members, twelve of which are Crown-elects for life, seven
chosen by Copenhagen, and one by the so-called Lagting of
Faro. The 46 remaining members are voted in by ten electoral
districts, each of which comprises from one to three Amts, or
rural governorships, with the towns situated within each of
them included. The elections are arranged on the proportional
or minority system. In Copenhagen and in the other towns one
moiety of electors is chosen out of those who possess the
franchise for the Lower House, the other moiety is selected
from among those who pay the highest municipal rates. In every
rural commune one elector is chosen by all the enfranchised
members of the community. … The Lower House is elected for
three years, and consists of 102 members; consequently there
are 102 electorates or electoral districts. … The Lower House
is elected by manhood suffrage.
{2835}
Every man thirty years old has a vote, provided there be no
stain on his character, and that he possesses the birthright
of a citizen within his district, and has been domiciled for a
year within it before exercising his right of voting, and does
not stand in such a subordinate relation of service to private
persons as not to have a home of his own. … The two Chambers
of the Rigsdag stand, as legislative bodies, on an equal
footing, both having the right to propose and to alter laws. …
At present [1891] this very Liberal Constitution is not
working smoothly. As was to be expected, two parties have
gradually come into existence—a Conservative and a Liberal,
or, as they are termed after French fashion, the Right and the
Left. The country is governed at present arbitrarily against
an opposition in overwhelming majority in the Lower House. The
dispute between the Left and the Ministry does not really turn
so much upon conflicting views with regard to great public
interests, as upon the question whether Denmark has, or has
not, to have parliamentary government. … The Right represents
chiefly the educated and the wealthy classes; the Left the
mass of the people, and is looked down upon by the Right. … I
said in the beginning that I would tell you how the
constitutional principle has been applied to Iceland. I have
only time briefly to touch upon that matter. In 1800 the old
Althing (All Men's Assembly, General Diet), which had existed
from 930, came to an end. Forty-five years later it was
re-established by King Christian VIII. in the character of a
consultative assembly. … The Althing at once began to direct
its attention to the question—What Iceland's proper position
should be in the Danish monarchy when eventually its
anticipated constitution should be carried out. The country
had always been governed by its special laws; it had a code of
laws of its own, and it had never been ruled, in
administrative sense, as a province of Denmark. Every
successive king had, on his accession to the throne, issued a
proclamation guaranteeing to Iceland due observance of the
country's laws and traditional privileges. Hence it was found
entirely impracticable to include Iceland under the provisions
of the charter for Denmark; and a royal rescript of September
23, 1848, announced that with regard to Iceland no measures
for settling the constitutional relation of that part of the
monarchy would be adopted until a constitutive assembly in the
country itself 'had been heard' on the subject. Unfortunately,
the revolt of the duchies intervened between this declaration
and the date of the constitutive assembly which was fixed for
1851. The Government took fright, being unfortunately quite in
the dark about the real state of public opinion in the distant
dependency. … The Icelanders only wanted to abide by their
laws, and to have the management of their own home affairs,
but the so-called National-Liberal Government wanted to
incorporate the country as a province in the kingdom of
Denmark proper. This idea the Icelanders really never could
understand as seriously meant. … The constitutive assembly was
brusquely dissolved by the Royal Commissary when he saw that
it meant to insist on autonomy for the Icelanders in their own
home affairs. And from 1851 to 1874 every successive Althing
(but one) persisted in calling on the Government to fulfil the
royal promise of 1848. It was no doubt due to the very loyal,
quiet, and able manner in which the Icelanders pursued their
case, under the leadership of the trusted patriot, Jon
Sigurdsson, that in 1874 the Government at last agreed to give
Iceland the constitution it demanded. But instead of frankly
meeting the Icelandic demands in full, they were only
partially complied with, and from the first the charter met
with but scanty popularity."

_E. Magnusson,
Denmark and Iceland
(National Life and Thought, chapter 12)._

SCANDINAVIAN STATES: (Sweden): A. D. 1855.
In the alliance against Russia.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1854-1856.

SCANDINAVIAN STATES: (Sweden and Norway): A. D. 1859.
Accession of Charles XV.

SCANDINAVIAN STATES: (Denmark): A. D. 1863.
Accession of Christian IX.

SCANDINAVIAN STATES: (Denmark): A. D. 1864.
Reopening of the Schleswig-Holstein question.
Austro-Prussian invasion and conquest of the duchies.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1861-1866.

SCANDINAVIAN STATES: (Sweden and Norway): A. D. 1872.
Accession of Oscar II.

SCANDINAVIAN STATES: A. D. 1890.
Population.

By a census taken, at the close of 1890, the population of
Sweden was found to be 4,784,981, and that of Norway
2,000,917. The population of Denmark, according to a census
taken in February, 1890, was 2,185,335.

_Statesman's Year-Book, 1894._

----------SCANDINAVIAN STATES: End--------

SCANZIA, Island of.

The peninsula of Sweden and Norway was so called by some
ancient writers.

See GOTHS, ORIGIN OF THE.

SCHAH, SHAH.

See BEY.

SCHAMYL'S WAR WITH THE RUSSIANS.

See CAUCASUS.

SCHARNHORST'S MILITARY REFORMS IN PRUSSIA.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1807-1808.

SCHELLENBERG, or HERMANSTADT, Battle of (1599).

See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES:
14-18TH CENTURIES (ROUMANIA, ETC.).

SCHENECTADY: A. D. 1690.
Massacre and Destruction by French and Indians.

See CANADA: A. D. 1689-1690;
also UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1690.

SCHEPENS.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1584-1585.

SCHILL'S RISING.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (APRIL-JULY).

SCHISM, The Great.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1377-1417, and 1414-1418;
also, ITALY: A. D. 1343-1389, and 1386-1414.

SCHISM ACT.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1711-1714.

SCHKIPETARS, Albanian.

See ILLYRIANS.

SCHLESWIG, and the Schleswig-Holstein question.

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (DENMARK): A. D. 1848-1862,
and GERMANY: A. D. 1861-1866, and 1866.

SCHMALKALDIC LEAGUE, The.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1530-1532.

SCHŒNE, The.

An ancient Egyptian measure of length which is supposed, as in
the case of the Persian parasang, to have been fixed by no
standard, but to have been merely a rude estimate of distance.

See PARASANG.

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SCHOFIELD, General J. M.
Campaign in Missouri and Arkansas.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (JULY-SEPTEMBER: MISSOURI-ARKANSAS),
and (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER: MISSOURI-ARKANSAS).

The Atlanta Campaign.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (MAY: GEORGIA),
to (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER: GEORGIA).

Campaign against Hood.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (NOVEMBER: TENNESSEE),
and (DECEMBER: TENNESSEE).

SCHOLARII.

The household troops or imperial life-guards of the Eastern
Roman Empire.

_T. Hodgkin,
Italy and Her Invaders,
book 5, chapter 20._

SCHOLASTICISM. SCHOOLMEN.

See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL: SCHOLASTICISM.

SCHOOL OF THE PALACE, Charlemagne's.

"Charlemagne took great care to attract distinguished
foreigners into his states, and … among those who helped to
second intellectual development in Frankish Gaul, many came
from abroad. … He not only strove to attract distinguished men
into his states, but he protected and encouraged them wherever
he discovered them. More than one Anglo-Saxon abbey shared his
liberality; and learned men who, after following him into
Gaul, wished to return to their country, in no way became
strangers to him. … Alcuin fixed himself there permanently. He
was born in England, at York, about 735. The intellectual
state of Ireland and England was then superior to that of the
continent; letters and schools prospered there more than
anywhere else. … The schools of England, and particularly that
of York, were superior to those of the continent. That of York
possessed a rich library, where many of the works of pagan
antiquity were found; among others, those of Aristotle, which
it is a mistake to say were first introduced to the knowledge
of modern Europe by the Arabians, and the Arabians only; for
from the fifth to the tenth century, there is no epoch in
which we do not find them mentioned in some library, in which
they were not known and studied by some men of letters. … In
780, on the death of archbishop Ælbert, and the accession of
his successor, Eanbald, Alcuin received from him the mission
to proceed to Rome for the purpose of obtaining from the pope
and bringing to him the 'pallium.' In returning from Rome, he
came to Parma, where he found Charlemagne. … The emperor at
once pressed him to take up his abode in France. After some
hesitation, Alcuin accepted the invitation, subject to the
permission of his bishop, and of his own sovereign. The
permission was obtained, and in 782 we find him established in
the court of Charlemagne, who at once gave him three abbeys,
those of Ferrieres in Gatanois, of St. Loup at Troyes, and of
St. Josse in the county of Ponthieu. From this time forth,
Alcuin was the confidant, the councillor, the intellectual
prime minister, so to speak, of Charlemagne. … From 782 to
796, the period of his residence in the court of Charlemagne,
Alcuin presided over a private school, called 'The School of
the Palace,' which accompanied Charlemagne wherever he went,
and at which were regularly present all those who were with
the emperor. … It is difficult to say what could have been the
course of instruction pursued in this school; I am disposed to
believe that to such auditors Alcuin addressed himself
generally upon all sorts of topics as they occurred; that in
the 'Ecole du Palais,' in fact, it was conversation rather
than teaching, especially so called, that went on; that
movement given to mind, curiosity constantly excited and
satisfied, was its chief merit."

_F. Guizot,
History of Civilization,
lecture 22 (volume 3)._

See, also, EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL.

ALSO IN:
_A. F. West,
Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools._

SCHOOLS.

See EDUCATION.

SCHÖNBRUNN,
Treaty of (1806).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1806 (JANUARY-AUGUST).

Treaty of (1809).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).

SCHOUT AND SCHEPENS.

The chief magistrate and aldermen of the chartered towns of
Holland were called the Schout and the Schepens.

_J. L. Motley,
Rise of the Dutch Republic,
introduction, section 6._

"In every tribunal there is a Schout or sheriff, who convenes
the judges, and demands from them justice for the litigating
parties; for the word 'schout' is derived from 'schuld,' debt,
and he is so denominated because he is the person who recovers
or demands common debts, according to Grotius."

_Van Leeuwen,
Commentaries on Roman Dutch Law,
quoted in O'Callaghan's History of New Netherland,
volume 1, page 101, foot-note,
and volume 2, page 212._

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1584-1585.

SCHUMLA, Siege of (1828).

See TURKS: A. D. 1826-1829.

SCHUYLER, General Philip, and the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1775 (MAY-AUGUST); 1777 (JULY-OCTOBER).

SCHUYLER, Fort (Late Fort Stanwix): A. D. 1777.
Defense against the British and Indians under St. Leger.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1777 (JULY-OCTOBER).

SCHWECHAT, Battle of (1848).

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1848-1849.

SCHWEIDNITZ, Battle of (1642).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1640-1645.

SCHWEIDNITZ:
Captured and recaptured.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1761-1762.

SCINDE, SINDH.

"Sindh is the Sanskrit word Sindh or Sindhu, a river or ocean.
It was applied to the river Indus, the first great body of
water encountered by the Aryan invaders. … Sindh, which is
part of the Bombay Presidency, is bounded on the north and
west by the territories of the khan of Khelat, in Beluchistan;
the Punjab and the Bahawalpur State lie on the north-east. …
Three-fourths of the people are Muhammadans and the remainder
Hindus." Sindh was included in the Indian conquests of Mahmud
of Ghazni, Akbar, and Nadir Shah.

See INDIA: A. D. 977-1290; 1399-1605; and 1662-1748).

"In 1748 the country became an appanage of Kabul, as part of
the dowry bestowed by the reigning emperor upon Timur, son of
Ahmed Shah Durani, who founded the kingdom of Afghanistan. …
The connection of the British government with Sindh had its
origin in A. D. 1758, when Ghulam Shah Kalhora … granted a
'purwanah,' or permit, to an officer in the East India
Company's service for the establishment of a factory in the
province. … In their relations with the British government the
Amirs throughout displayed much jealousy of foreign
interference. Several treaties were made with them from time
to time.
{2837}
In 1836, owing to the designs of Ranjit Singh on Sindh, which,
however, were not carried out because of the interposition of
the British government, more intimate connection with the
Amirs was sought. Colonel Pottinger visited them to negotiate
for this purpose. It was not, however, till 1838 that a short
treaty was concluded, in which it was stipulated that a
British minister should reside at Haidarabad. At this time the
friendly alliance of the Amirs was deemed necessary in the
contemplated war with Afghanistan which the British government
was about to undertake, to place a friendly ruler on the
Afghan throne. The events that followed led to the occupation
of Karachi by the British, and placed the Amirs in subsidiary
dependence on the British government. New treaties became
necessary, and Sir Charles Napier was sent to Haidarabad to
negotiate. The Beluchis were infuriated at this proceeding,
and openly insulted the officer, Sir James Outram, at the
Residency at Haidarabad. Sir Charles Napier thereupon attacked
the Amir's forces at Meanee, on 17th February, 1843, with
2,800 men, and twelve pieces of artillery, and succeeded in
gaining a complete victory over 22,000 Beluchis, with the
result that the whole of Sindh was annexed to British India."

_D. Ross,
The Land of the Five Rivers and Sindh,
pages 1-6._

ALSO IN:
_Mohan Lal,
Life of Amir Dost Mohammed Khan,
chapter 14 (volume 2)._

See INDIA: A. D. 1836-1845.

SCIO.

See CHIOS.

SCIPIO AFRICANUS, The Campaigns of.

See PUNIC WAR, THE SECOND.

SCIPIO AFRICANUS MINOR,
Destruction of Carthage by.

See CARTHAGE: B. C. 146.

SCIR-GEREFA.

See SHERIFF; SHIRE; and EALDORMAN.

SCIRONIAN WAY, The.

"The Scironian Way led from Megara to Corinth, along the
eastern shore of the isthmus. At a short distance from Megara
it passed along the Scironian rocks, a long range of
precipices overhanging the sea, forming the extremity of a
spur which descends from Mount Geranium. This portion of the
road is now known as the 'Kaki Scala,' and is passed with some
difficulty. The way seems to have been no more than a footpath
until the time of Adrian, who made a good carriage road
throughout the whole distance. There is but one other route by
which the isthmus can be traversed. It runs inland, and passes
over a higher portion of Mount Geranium, presenting to the
traveller equal or greater difficulties."

_G. Rawlinson,
History of Herodotus,
book 8, section 71, foot-note._

SCLAVENES. SCLAVONIC PEOPLES.

See SLAVONIC PEOPLES.

SCLAVONIC.

See SLAVONIC.

SCODRA, OR SKODRA.·

See ILLYRIANS.

SCONE, Kingdom of.

See SCOTLAND: 8-9TH CENTURIES.

SCORDISCANS, The.

The Scordiscans, called by some Roman writers a Thracian
people, but supposed to have been Celtic, were settled in the
south of Pannonia in the second century, B. C. In B. C. 114
they destroyed a Roman army under consul C. Portius Cato. Two
years later consul M. Livius Drusus drove them across the
Danube.

_E. H. Bunbury,
History of Ancient Geography,
chapter 18, section 1 (volume 2)._

SCOT AND LOT.

"Paying scot and lot; that is, bearing their rateable
proportion in the payments levied from the town for local or
national purposes."

_W. Stubbs,
Constitutional History of England,
chapter 20, section 745 (volume 3)._

SCOTCH HIGHLAND AND LOWLAND.

"If a line is drawn from a point on the eastern bank of Loch
Lomond, somewhat south of Ben Lomond, following in the main
the line of the Grampians, and crossing the Forth at Aberfoil,
the Teith at Callander, the Almond at Crieff, the Tay at
Dunkeld, the Ericht at Blairgowrie, and proceeding through the
hills of Brae Angus till it reaches the great range of the
Mounth, then crossing the Dee at Ballater, the Spey at lower
Craigellachie, till it reaches the Moray Firth at Nairn—this
forms what was called the Highland Line and separated the
Celtic from the Teutonic-speaking people. Within this line,
with the exception of the county of Caithness which belongs to
the Teutonic division, the Gaelic language forms the
vernacular of the inhabitants."

_W. F. Skene,
Celtic Scotland,
volume 2, page 453._

SCOTCH-IRISH, The.

In 1607, six counties in the Irish province of Ulster,
formerly belonging to the earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnel, were
confiscated by the English crown. The two earls, who had
submitted and had been pardoned, after a long rebellion during
the reign of queen Elizabeth, had now fled from new charges of
treason, and their great estates were forfeited.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1559-1603, and 1607-1611.

These estates, thus acquired by King James, the first of the
Stuarts, were "parcelled out among a body of Scotch and
English, brought over for the purpose. The far greater number
of these plantations were from the lower part of Scotland, and
became known as 'Scotch-Irish.' Thus a new population was
given to the north of Ireland, which has changed its history.
The province of Ulster, with fewer natural advantages than
either Munster, Leinster, or Connaught, became the most
prosperous, industrious and law-abiding of all Ireland. … But
the Protestant population thus transplanted to the north of
Ireland was destined to suffer many … persecutions. … In 1704,
the test-oath was imposed, by which everyone in public
employment was required to profess English prelacy. It was
intended to suppress Popery, but was used by the Episcopal
bishops to check Presbyterianism. To this was added burdensome
restraints on their commerce, and extortionate rents from
their landlords, resulting in what is known as the Antrim
evictions. There had been occasional emigrations from the
north of Ireland from the plantation of the Scotch, and one of
the ministers sent over in 1683, Francis Makemie, had
organized on the eastern shore of Maryland and in the
adjoining counties of Virginia the first Presbyterian churches
in America. But in the early part of the eighteenth century
the great movement began which transported so large a portion
of the Scotch-Irish into the American colonies, and, through
their influence, shaped in a great measure the destinies of
America. Says the historian Froude: 'In the two years which
followed the Antrim evictions, thirty-thousand Protestants
left Ulster for a land where there was no legal robbery, and
where those who sowed the seed could reap the harvest.'
Alarmed by the depletion of the Protestant population, the
Toleration Act was passed, and by it, and further promises of
relief, the tide of emigration was checked for a brief period.
{2838}
In 1728, however, it began anew, and from 1729 to 1750, it was
estimated that 'about twelve thousand came annually from
Ulster to America.' So many had settled in Pennsylvania before
1729 that James Logan, the Quaker president of that colony,
expressed his fear that they would become proprietors of the
province. … This bold stream of emigrants struck the American
continent mainly on the eastern border of Pennsylvania, and
was, in great measure, turned southward through Maryland,
Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina, reaching and
crossing the Savannah river. It was met at various points by
counter streams of the same race, which had entered the
continent through the seaports of the Carolinas and Georgia.
Turning westward the combined flood overflowed the mountains
and covered the rich valley of the Mississippi beyond. As the
Puritans or Round-heads of the south, but freed from
fanaticism, they gave tone to its people and direction to its
history. … The task would be almost endless to simply call the
names of this people [the Scotch-Irish] in the South who have
distinguished themselves in the annals of their country. Yet
some rise before me, whose names demand utterance in any
mention of their people —names which the world will not
willingly let die. Among the statesmen they have given to the
world are Jefferson, Madison, Calhoun, Benton. Among the
orators, Henry, Rutledge, Preston, McDuffie, Yancy. Among the
poets, the peerless Poe. Among the jurists, Marshall,
Campbell, Robertson. Among the divines, Waddell, the
Alexanders, Breckinridge, Robinson, Plummer, Hoge, Hawks,
Fuller, McKendree. Among the physicians, McDowell, Sims,
McGuire. Among the inventors, McCormick. Among the soldiers,
Lee, the Jacksons, the Johnstons, Stuart. Among the sailors,
Paul Jones, Buchanan. Presidents from the South,
seven—Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, Jackson, Taylor, Polk,
Johnson."

_W. W. Henry,
The Scotch Irish of the South,
(Proceedings of the Scotch-Irish Congress, 1889)._

"Full credit has been awarded the Roundhead and the Cavalier
for their leadership in our history; nor have we been
altogether blind to the deeds of the Hollander and the
Huguenot; but it is doubtful if we have wholly realized the
importance of the part played by that stern and virile people,
the Irish whose preachers taught the creed of Knox and Calvin.
These Irish representatives of the Covenanters were in the
west almost what the Puritans were in the northeast, and more
than the Cavaliers were in the south. Mingled with the
descendants of many other races, they nevertheless formed the
kernel of the distinctively and intensely American stock who
were the pioneers of our people in their march westward, the
vanguard of the army of fighting settlers, who with axe and
rifle won their way from the Alleghanies to the Rio Grande and
the Pacific. … They … made their abode at the foot of the
mountains, and became the outposts of civilization. … In this
land of hills, covered by unbroken forest, they took root and
flourished, stretching in a broad belt from north to south, a
shield of sinewy men thrust in between the people of the
seaboard and the red warriors of the wilderness. All through
this region they were alike; they had as little kinship with
the Cavalier as with the Quaker; the west was won by those who
have been rightly called the Roundheads of the south, the same
men who, before any others, declared for American
independence. The two facts of most importance to remember in
dealing with our pioneer history are, first, that the western
portions of Virginia and the Carolinas were peopled by an
entirely different stock from that which had long existed in
the tide-water regions of those colonies; and, secondly, that,
except for those in the Carolinas who came from Charleston,
the immigrants of this stock were mostly from the north, from
their great breeding ground and nursery in western
Pennsylvania. That these Irish Presbyterians were a bold and
hardy race is proved by their at once pushing past the settled
regions, and plunging into the wilderness as the leaders of
the white advance. They were the first and last set of
immigrants to do this; all others have merely followed in the
wake of their predecessors. But, indeed, they were fitted to
be Americans from the very start; they were kinsfolk of the
Covenanters; they deemed it a religious duty to interpret
their own Bible, and held for a divine right the election of
their own clergy. For generations, their whole ecclesiastic
and scholastic systems had been fundamentally democratic."

_T. Roosevelt,
The Winning of the West,
volume 1, chapter 5._

ALSO IN:
_J. Phelan,
History of Tennessee,
chapter 23. _

SCOTCH MILE ACT.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1660-1666.

SCOTIA, The name.

See SCOTLAND, THE NAME.

----------SCOTLAND: Start--------

SCOTLAND:
The name.

"The name of Scotia, or Scotland, whether in its Latin or its
Saxon form, was not applied to any part of the territory
forming the modern kingdom of Scotland till towards the end of
the tenth century. Prior to that period it was comprised in
the general appellation of Britannia, or Britain, by which the
whole island was designated in contradistinction from that of
Hibernia, or Ireland. That part of the island of Britain which
is situated to the north of the Firths of Forth and Clyde
seems indeed to have been known to the Romans as early as the
first century by the distinctive name of Caledonia, and it
also appears to have borne from an early period another
appellation, the Celtic form of which was Albu, Alba, or
Alban, and Its Latin form Albania. The name of Scotia,
however, was exclusively appropriated to the island of
Ireland. Ireland was emphatically Scotia, the 'patria,' or
mother-country of the Scots; and although a colony of that
people had established themselves as early as the beginning of
the sixth century in the western districts of Scotland, it was
not till the tenth century that any part of the present
country of Scotland came to be known under that name. …
{2839}
From the tenth to the twelfth or thirteenth centuries the name
of Scotia, gradually superseding the older name of Alban, or
Albania, was confined to a district nearly corresponding with
that part of the Lowlands of Scotland which is situated on the
north of the Firth of Forth. … The three propositions—

1st, That Scotia, prior to the tenth century, was Ireland, and
Ireland alone;

2d, That when applied to Scotland it was considered a new name
superinduced upon the older designation of Alban or Albania;
and;

3d, That the Scotia of the three succeeding centuries was
limited to the districts between the Forth, the Spey, and
Drumalban,—lie at the very threshold of Scottish history."

_W. F. Skene,
Celtic Scotland,
volume 1, introduction._

SCOTLAND:
The Picts and Scots.

"Cæsar tells us that the inhabitants of Britain in his day
painted themselves with a dye extracted from woad; by the
time, however, of British independence under Carausius and
Allectus, in the latter part of the third century, the fashion
had so far fallen off in Roman Britain that the word 'Picti,'
Picts, or painted men, had got to mean the peoples beyond the
Northern wall. … Now, all these Picts were natives of Britain,
and the word Picti is found applied to them for the first
time, in a panegyric by Eumenius, in the year 296; but in the
year 360 another painted people appeared on the scene. They
came from Ireland, and, to distinguish these two sets of
painted foes from one another, Latin historians left the
painted natives to be called Picti, as had been done before,
and for the painted invaders from Ireland they retained,
untranslated, a Celtic word of the same (or nearly the same)
meaning, namely 'Scotti.' Neither the Picts nor the Scotti
probably owned these names, the former of which is to be
traced to Roman authors, while the latter was probably given
the invaders from Ireland by the Brythons, whose country they
crossed the sea to ravage. The Scots, however, did recognize a
national name, which described them as painted or tattooed
men. … This word was Cruithnig, which is found applied equally
to the painted people of both islands. … The eponymus of all
the Picts was Cruithne, or Cruithneehan, and we have a kindred
Brythonic form in Prydyn, the name by which Scotland once used
to be known to the Kymry."

_J. Rhys,
Celtic Britain,
chapter 7_.

A different view of the origin and signification of these
names is maintained by Dr. Guest.

_E. Guest,
Origines Celticae,
volume 2, part 1, chapter 1._

Prof. Freeman looks upon the question as unsettled. He says:
"The proper Scots, as no one denies, were a Gaelic colony from
Ireland. The only question is as to the Picts or Caledonians.
Were they another Gaelic tribe, the vestige of a Gaelic
occupation of the island earlier than the British occupation,
or were they simply Britons who had never been brought under
the Roman dominion? The geographical aspect of the case
favours the former belief, but the weight of philological
evidence seems to be on the side of the latter."

_E. A. Freeman,
History of the Norman Conquest of England,
chapter 2, section 1, foot-note._

ALSO IN:
_W. F. Skene,
Celtic Scotland,
book 1, chapter 5._

SCOTLAND: A. D. 78-84.
Roman conquests under Agricola.

See BRITAIN: A. D. 78-84.

SCOTLAND: A. D. 208-211.
Campaigns of Severus against the Caledonians.

See BRITAIN: A. D. 208-211.

SCOTLAND: A. D. 367-370.
The repulse of the Picts and Scots by Theodosius.

See BRITAIN: A. D. 367-370.

SCOTLAND: 6th Century.
The Mission of St. Columba.

See COLUMBAN CHURCH.

SCOTLAND: 6-7th Centuries.
Part included in the English Kingdom of Northumberland.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 547-633.

SCOTLAND: 7th Century.
The Four Kingdoms.

"Out of these Celtic and Teutonic races [Picts, Scots, Britons
of Strathclyde, and Angles] there emerged in that northern
part of Britain which eventually became the territory of the
subsequent monarchy of Scotland, four kingdoms within definite
limits and under settled forms of government; and as such we
find them in the beginning of the 7th century, when the
conflict among these races, which succeeded the departure of
the Romans from the island, and the termination of their power
in Britain, may be held to have ceased and the limits of these
kingdoms to have become settled. North of the Firths of Forth
and Clyde were the two kingdoms of the Scots of Dalriada on
the west and of the Picts on the east. They were separated
from each other by a range of mountains termed by Adamnan the
Dorsal ridge of Britain, and generally known by the name of
Drumalban. … The colony [of Dalriada] was originally founded
by Fergus Mor, son of Erc, who came with his two brothers
Loarn and Angus from Irish Dalriada in the end of the 5th
century [see DALRIADA], but the true founder of the Dalriadic
kingdom was his great grandson Aedan, son of Gabran. … The
remaining districts north of the Firths of Forth and Clyde
formed the kingdom of the Picts. … The districts south of the
Firths of Forth and Clyde, and extending to the Solway Firth
on the west and to the Tyne on the east, were possessed by the
two kingdoms of the Britons [afterwards Strathclyde], on the
west and of the Angles of Bernicia on the east. The former
extended from the river Derwent in Cumberland in the south to
the Firth of Clyde in the north, which separated the Britons
from the Scots of Dalriada. … The Angles of Bernicia … were
now in firm possession of the districts extending along the
east coast as far as the Firth of Forth, originally occupied
by the British tribe of the Ottadeni and afterwards by the
Picts, and including the counties of Berwick and Roxburgh and
that of East Lothian or Haddington, the rivers Esk and Gala
forming here their western boundary. … In the centre of
Scotland, where it is intersected by the two arms of the sea,
the Forth and the Clyde, and where the boundaries of these
four kingdoms approach one another, is a territory extending
from the Esk to the Tay, which possessed a very mixed
population and was the scene of most of the conflicts between
these four states." About the middle of the 7th century, Osuiu
or Oswiu, king of Northumberland (which then included
Bernicia), having overcome the Mercians, "extended his sway
not only over the Britons but over the Picts and Scots; and
thus commenced the dominion of the Angles over the Britons of
Alclyde, the Scots of Dalriada, and the southern Picts, which
was destined to last for thirty years. … In the meantime the
little kingdom of Dalriada was in a state of complete
disorganisation. We find no record of any real king over the
whole nation of the Scots, but each separate tribe seems to
have remained isolated from the rest under its own chief,
while the Britons exercised a kind of sway over them, and
along with the Britons they were under subjection to the
Angles."
{2840}
In 685, on an attempt being made to throw off the yoke of the
Angles of Northumbria, King Ecgfrid or Ecgfrith, son of Oswiu,
led an army into the country of the Picts and was there
defeated crushingly and slain in a conflict styled variously
the battle of Dunnichen, Duin Nechtain, and Nechtan's Mere.
The effect of the defeat is thus described by Bede; "'From
that time the hopes and strength of the Anglic kingdom began
to fluctuate and to retrograde, for the Picts recovered the
territory belonging to them which the Angles had held, and the
Scots who were in Britain and a certain part of the Britons
regained their liberty, which they have now enjoyed for about
forty-six years.'"

_W. F. Skene,
Celtic Scotland,
book 1, chapter 5 (volume 1)._

SCOTLAND: 8-9th Centuries.
The kingdom of Scone and the kingdom of Alban.

"The Pictish kingdom had risen fast to greatness after the
victory of Nectansmere in 685. In the century which followed
Ecgfrith's defeat, its kings reduced the Scots of Dalriada
from nominal dependence to actual subjection, the annexation
of Angus and Fife carried their eastern border to the sea,
while to the south their alliance with the Northumbrians in
the warfare which both waged on the Welsh extended their
bounds on the side of Cumbria or Strath·Clyde. But the hour of
Pictish greatness was marked by the extinction of the Pictish
name. In the midst of the 9th century the direct line of their
royal house came to an end, and the under-king of the Scots of
Dalriada, Kenneth Mac Alpin, ascended the Pictish throne in
right of his maternal descent. For fifty years more Kenneth
and his successors remained kings of the Picts. At the moment
we have reached, however [the close of the 9th century], the
title passed suddenly away, the tribe which had given its
chief to the throne gave its name to the realm, and
'Pict-land' disappeared from history to make room first for
Alban or Albania, and then for 'the land of the Scots.'"

_J. R. Green,
The Conquest of England,
chapter 4._

It appears however that, before the kingdom of Alban was
known, there was a period during which the realm established
by the successors of Kenneth Mac Alpin, the Scot, occupying
the throne of the Picts, was called the kingdom of Scone, from
the town which became its capital. "It was at Scone too that
the Coronation Stone was 'reverently kept for the consecration
of the kings of Alban,' and of this stone it was believed that
'no king was ever wont to reign in Scotland unless he had
first, on receiving the royal name, sat upon this stone at
Scone.' … Of its identity with the stone now preserved in the
coronation chair at Westminster there can be no doubt. It is
an oblong block of red sandstone, some 26 inches long by 16
inches broad, and 10½ inches deep. … Its mythic origin
identifies it with the stone which Jacob used as a pillow at
Bethel, … but history knows of it only at Scone." Some time
near the close of the 9th century "the kingdom ceased to be
called that of Scone and its territory Cruithentuath, or
Pictavia its Latin equivalent, and now became known as the
kingdom of Alban or Albania, and we find its kings no longer
called kings of the Picts but kings of Alban."

_W. F. Skene,
Celtic Scotland,
book 1, chapters 6-7 (volume 1)._

SCOTLAND: 9th Century.
The Northmen on the coasts and in the Islands.

See NORMANS.—NORTHMEN; 8-9TH CENTURIES.

SCOTLAND: 10-11th Centuries.
The forming of' the modern kingdom
and its relations to England.