Chapter CDXXXVI: Act 8: Parliament 1. repeated in Act 99. Parliament 7 (33)

See NETHERLANDS (AUSTRIAN PROVINCES):
A. D. 1745; and AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, THE CONGRESS.

TOURNAY: A. D. 1794.
Battles near the city.
Surrender to the French.

FRANCE: A. D. 1794 (MARCH-JULY).

----------TOURNAY: End--------

TOURNEY. TOURNAMENT. JOUST.

"The word tourney, sometimes tournament, and in Latin
'torneamentum,' clearly indicates both the French origin of
these games and the principal end of that exercise, the art of
manœuvring, of turning ('tournoyer') his horse skilfully, to
strike his adversary and shield himself at the same time from
his blows. The combats, especially those of the nobility, were
always fought on horseback, with the lance and sharp sword;
the knight presented himself, clothed in armour which covered
his whole body, and which, while it preserved him from wounds,
bent to every movement and retarded those of his war horse. It
was important, therefore, that constant exercise should
accustom the knight's limbs to the enormous weight which he
must carry, and the horse to the agility which was expected of
him. In a 'passage' or 'pass of arms' ('passage' or 'pas
d'armes') the generic name of all those games, this exercise
was composed of two parts: the joust, which was a single
combat of knight against knight, both clothed in all their
arms, and the tourney, which was the image of a general
battle, or the encounter and evolutions of two troops of
cavalry equal in number."

_J. C. L. de Sismondi,
France under the Feudal System
(Translated by W. Bellingham),
chapter 8._

TOURS: A. D. 732.
Defeat of the Moors by Charles Martel.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 715-732;
also, FRANKS: A. D. 511-752.

TOURS: A. D. 1870.
Seat of a part of the provisional
Government of National Defense.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER).

TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE, The career of.

See HAYTI: A. D. 1632-1803.

TOWER AND SWORD, The Order of the.

This was an order of knighthood founded in Portugal by Alfonso
V., who reigned from 1438 to 1481. "The institution of the
order related to a sword reputed to be carefully guarded in a
tower of the city of Fez: respecting it there was a prophecy
that it must one day come into the possession of a Christian
king; in other words, that the Mohammedan empire of
northwestern Africa would be subverted by the Christians.
Alfonso seemed to believe that he was the destined conqueror."

_S. A. Dunham.
History of Spain and Portugal,
volume 3, page 225 (American edition)._

TOWER OF LONDON, The.

"Built originally by the Conqueror to curb London, afterwards
the fortress-palace of his descendants, and in the end the
State prison, from which a long procession of the ill-starred
great went forth to lay their heads on the block on Tower
Hill; while State murders, like those of Henry VI. and the two
young sons of Edward IV., were done in the dark chambers of
the Tower itself."

_Goldwin Smith,
A Trip to England,
page 56._

"Even as to length of days, the Tower has no rival among
palaces and prisons. … Old writers date it from the days of
Caesar; a legend taken up by Shakspeare and the poets in
favour of which the name of Caesar's Tower remains in popular
use to this very day. A Roman wall can even yet be traced near
some parts of the ditch. The Tower is mentioned in the Saxon
Chronicle, in a way not incompatible with the fact of a Saxon
stronghold having stood upon the spot. The buildings as we
have them now in block and plan were commenced by William the
Conqueror; and the series of apartments in Caesar's Tower [the
great Norman keep now called the White Tower]—hall, gallery,
council chamber, chapel—were built in the early Norman reigns
and used as a royal residence by all our Norman kings."

_W. H. Dixon,
Her Majesty's Tower,
chapter 1._

"We are informed by the 'Textus Roffensis' that the present
Great or White Tower was constructed by Gundulph, Bishop of
Rochester, under the direction of King William I., who was
suspicious of the fidelity of the citizens. The date assigned
by Stow is 1078."

_J. Britton and E. W. Brayley,
Memoirs of the Tower of London,
chapter 1._

ALSO IN:
_Lord de Ros,
Memorials of the Tower._

TOWN.

"Burh, burgh, borough, in its various spellings and various
shades of meaning, is our native word for urbes of every kind
from Rome downward: It is curious that this word should in
ordinary speech have been so largely displaced by the vaguer
word tun, town, which means an enclosure of any kind, and in
some English dialects is still applied to a single house and
its surroundings."

_E. A. Freeman,
City and Borough
(Macmillan's Magazine, May, 1889)._

See, also, TOWNSHIP; BOROUGH; GUILDS; and COMMUNE.

TOWNSHEND MEASURES, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1766-1767.

TOWNSHIP.

"In recent historical writing dealing with Anglo-Saxon
conditions, a great place has been occupied by the 'township.'
The example was set sixty years ago by Palgrave; but it does
not seem to have been generally followed until in 1874 Dr.
Stubbs gave the word a prominent place in his 'Constitutional
History.' With Dr. Stubbs the 'township' was 'the unit of the
constitutional machinery or local administration'; and since
then most writers on constitutional and legal history have
followed in the same direction. … The language commonly used
in this connection need not, perhaps, necessarily be
understood as meaning that the phenomenon which the writers
have in mind was actually known to the Saxons themselves as a
'township' ('tunscipe'). It may be said that 'township' is
merely a modern name which it is convenient to apply to it.
Yet, certainly, that language usually suggests that it was
under that name that the Saxons knew it. … It is therefore of
some interest, at least for historical terminology,—and
possibly for other and more important reasons,—to point out
that there is no good foundation in Anglo-Saxon sources for
such a use of the term; that 'tunscipe' in the few places
where it does appear does not mean an area of land, an extent
of territory, or even the material houses and crofts of a
village; that it is probably nothing more than a loose general
term for 'the villagers.' …
{3120}
Only three passages in Anglo-Saxon literature have as yet been
found in which the word 'tunscipe' appears,—the Saxon
translation of Bede's 'Ecclesiastical History,' volume 10, the
laws of Edgar, iv. 8, and the 'Saxon Chronicle,' s. a 1137. …
The later history of the word 'township' would probably repay
investigation. It is certainly not a common word in literature
until comparatively recent times; and, where it does appear,
its old meaning seems often to cling to it. … There is a good
deal to make one believe that 'town ' [see, above, TOWN]
continued to be the common popular term for what we may
describe in general language as a rural centre of population
even into the 18th century. … The far more general use of the
word 'town' than of 'township' in early New England is most
naturally explained by supposing that it was the word
ordinarily employed in England at the time of the
migration,—at any rate, in East Anglia. … It might very
naturally be said that the effect of the foregoing argument is
no more than to replace 'township' by town, and that such a
change is immaterial,—that it is a difference between
tweedle-dum and tweedle-dee. I cannot help thinking, however,
that the adoption of a more correct terminology will be of
scientific advantage; and for this reason. So long as we speak
of the Anglo-Saxon 'township' we can hardly help attaching to
the word somewhat of the meaning which it has borne since the
sixteenth century. We think of it as an area inhabited by
freemen with an administrative machinery in the hands of an
assembly of those inhabitants and of officers chosen by them.
We start, therefore, with a sort of unconscious presumption
that the 'township' was what we call 'free.' … Now, it is this
question as to the position of the body of the population in
the earliest Anglo-Saxon times that is just now at issue; and
no student would say that at present the question is settled."

_W. J. Ashley,
The Anglo-Saxon "Township"
(Quarterly Journal of Economics, April, 1894)._

TOWNSHIP AND TOWN-MEETING, The New England.

"When people from England first came to dwell in the
wilderness of Massachusetts Bay, they settled in groups upon
small irregular-shaped patches of land, which soon came to be
known as townships. … This migration … was a movement, not of
individuals or of separate families, but of
church-congregations, and it continued to be so as the
settlers made their way inland and westward. … A township
would consist of about as many farms as could be disposed
within convenient distance from the meeting-house, where all
the inhabitants, young and old, gathered every Sunday, coming
on horseback or afoot. The meeting-house was thus centrally
situated, and near it was the town pasture or 'common,' with
the school-house and the block-house, or rude fortress for
defence against the Indians. … Around the meeting-house and
common the dwellings gradually clustered into a village, and
after a while the tavern, store, and town-house made their
appearance. … Under these circumstances they developed a kind
of government which we may describe in the present tense, for
its methods are pretty much the same to-day that they were two
centuries ago. In a New England township the people directly
govern themselves; the government is the people, or, to speak
with entire precision, it is all the male inhabitants of
one-and-twenty years of age and upwards. The people tax
themselves. Once each year, usually in March but sometimes as
early as February or as late as April, a 'town-meeting' is
held, at which all the grown men of the township are expected
to be present and to vote, while anyone may introduce motions
or take part in the discussion. … The town-meeting is held in
the town-house, but at first it used to be held in the church,
which was thus a 'meeting-house' for civil as well as
ecclesiastical purposes. At the town-meeting measures relating
to the administration of town affairs are discussed and
adopted or rejected; appropriations are made for the public
expenses of the town, or in other words the amount of the town
taxes for the year is determined; and town officers are
elected for the year. … The principal executive magistrates of
the town are the selectmen. They are three, five, seven, or
nine in number. … It [the town] was simply the English parish
government brought into a new country and adapted to the new
situation. Part of this new situation consisted in the fact
that the lords of the manor were left behind. There was no
longer any occasion to distinguish between the township as a
manor and the township as a parish; and so, as the three names
had all lived on together, side by side, in England, it was
now the oldest and most generally descriptive name,
'township,' that survived, and has come into use throughout a
great part of the United States. … New York had from the very
beginning the rudiments of an excellent system of local
self-government. The Dutch villages had their assemblies,
which under the English rule were developed into
town-meetings, though with less ample powers than those of New
England. … The New York system is of especial interest,
because it has powerfully influenced the development of local
institutions throughout the Northwest."

_J. Fiske,
Civil Government in the United States,
chapters 2 and 4._

"The name town first occurs in the record of the second
colonial meeting of the Court of Assistants [Massachusetts
Bay, September 7, 1630], in connection with the naming of
Boston, Charlestown and Watertown. … A rude pattern of a frame
of town government was shaped by Dorchester, when, in place of
the earlier practice of transacting business at meetings of
the whole body of its freemen (the grants of land being
certified by a committee consisting of the clergymen and
deacons), it designated certain inhabitants, twelve in number,
to meet weekly, and consult and determine upon public
affairs,—without any authority, however, beyond other
inhabitants who should choose to come and take part in their
consultations and votes. About the same time, at Watertown, it
was 'agreed by the consent of the freemen, that there should
be three persons chosen for the ordering of the civil
affairs.' In the fourth year from the settlement of Boston, at
which time the earliest extant records were made, three
persons were chosen 'to make up the ten to manage the affairs
of the town.' The system of delegated town action was there
perhaps the same which was defined in an 'Order made by the
inhabitants of Charlestown, at a full meeting [February 10,
1635], for the government of the town by Selectmen,'—the name
presently extended throughout New England to the municipal
governors. …
{3121}
The towns have been, on the one hand, separate governments,
and, on the other, the separate constituents of a common
government. In Massachusetts, for two centuries and a quarter,
the Deputies in the General Court—or Representatives, as they
have been named under the State Constitution—continued to
represent the municipal corporations. In New Hampshire,
Vermont, Connecticut and Rhode Island, that basis of
representation still subsists."

_J. G. Palfrey,
History of New England,
volume 1, chapter 9._

"Boston … is the largest community that ever maintained the
town organization, probably the most generally able and
intelligent. No other town ever played so conspicuous a part
in connection with important events. It led Massachusetts, New
England, the thirteen colonies, in the struggle for
independence. Probably in the whole history of the Anglo-Saxon
race, there has been no other so interesting manifestation of
the activity of the Folk-mote. Of this town of towns, Samuel
Adams was the son of sons. … One may almost call him the
creature of the town-meeting."

_J. K. Hosmer,
Samuel Adams, the Man of the Town-Meeting
(Johns Hopkins University Studies, series 2, number 4)._

ALSO IN:
_E. Channing,
Town and County Government in the English Colonies
(Johns Hopkins University Studies, series 2, number 10)._

See, also, NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1640-1644;
and SELECTMEN.

TOWTON, Battle of (A. D. 1461).

On Palm Sunday, March 29, 1461, two armies of Englishmen met
on a "goodly plain," ten miles from the city of York, between
the villages of Towton and Saxton, to fight out the contention
of the parties of the "two roses,"—of Lancaster and York. The
battle they fought is called the bloodiest that ever dyed
English soil. It raged through an afternoon and 'a night until
the following day, and the slain of the two sides has been
variously reckoned by different historians at 20,000 to
38,000. No quarter was given by the victorious partisans of
Edward IV. and the Lancastrians were utterly crushed. Henry
VI. fled to Scotland and Queen Margaret repaired to France.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1455-1471.

_C. Ransome,
Battle of Towton
(English Historical Review, July, 1889)._

TOXANDRIA.

After Julian's successful campaigns against the Franks, A. D.
358, the latter were permitted to remain, as subjects of the
Roman Empire, in "an extensive district of Brabant, which was
then known by the appellation of Toxandria, and may deserve to
be considered as the original seat of their Gallic monarchy. …
This name seems to be derived from the 'Toxandri' of Pliny,
and very frequently occurs in the histories of the middle age.
Toxandria was a country of woods and morasses, which extended
from the neighbourhood of Tongres to the conflux of the Vahal
and the Rhine."

_E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 19, with foot-note._

See, also, GAUL: A. D. 355-361.

TOXARCHI, The.

The commanders of the Athenian archers and of the city-watch
(known as Scythians) were so called.

_A. Boeckh,
Public Economy of Athens,
book 2, chapter 11. _

TRACHIS. TRACHINIA.

See GREECE: B. C. 480 (THERMOPYLÆ).

TRACTARIAN MOVEMENT. TRACTS FOR THE TIMES. TRACT NINETY.

See OXFORD OR TRACTARIAN MOVEMENT.

TRADES UNIONS.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS.

TRAFALGAR, Naval Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1805 (MARCH-DECEMBER).

TRAJAN, Roman Emperor, A. D. 98-117.

TRAJAN'S WALL.

The Emperor Trajan "began a fortified line, afterwards
completed, from the Rhine to the Danube. This great work was
carried from Ratisbon to Mayence. It was known as Trajan's
Wall. It may still be traced to some extent by the marks of a
mound and a ditch."

_Church and Brodribb,
Notes to the Germany of Tacitus,
chapter 29._

TRAMELI, The.

See LYCIANS.

TRANSALPINE.

Beyond the Alps, looking from the Roman standpoint.

TRANSLEITHANIA.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1866-1867.

TRANSOXANIA.

See BOKHARA.

TRANSPADANE GAUL.

Cisalpine Gaul north of the Padus, or Po.

See PADUS.

TRANSRHENANE.

Beyond the Rhine,—looking from the Roman standpoint; that is,
on the eastern and northern side of the Rhine.

TRANSVAAL REPUBLIC, The.

See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1806-1881.

TRANSYLVANIA: Early history.

See DACIA.

TRANSYLVANIA: The Huns in possession.

See HUNS: A. D. 433-453.

TRANSYLVANIA: 12th Century.
Conquest by Hungary.
Settlement of Germans.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1114-1301.

TRANSYLVANIA: A. D. 1526-1567.
John Zapolya, the waivod, elected King of Hungary.
His contest with Ferdinand of Austria.
His appeal to the Turks.
The Sultan assumes suzerainty of the country.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1526-1567.

TRANSYLVANIA: A. D. 1567-1660.
Struggles between the Austrian and the Turk.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1567-1604; and 1606-1660.

TRANSYLVANIA: A. D. 1575.
Stephen Batory, the Duke, elected King of Poland.

See POLAND: A. D. 1574-1590.

TRANSYLVANIA: A. D: 1599-1601.
Wallachian conquest.

See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES,
14-18TH CENTURIES (ROUMANIA, ETC.).

TRANSYLVANIA: A. D. 1606.
Yoke of the Ottomans partly broken.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1595-1606.

TRANSYLVANIA: A. D. 1660-1664.
Recovery of independence from the Turks.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1660-1664.

TRANSYLVANIA: A. D. 1699.
Ceded to the House of Austria by the Turks,
in the Treaty of Carlowitz.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1683-1699.

TRANSYLVANIA, The Kentucky colony of.

See KENTUCKY: A. D. 1765-1778.

TRAPPISTS.

The monks of La Trappe are often referred to as Trappists.
"This celebrated abbey was one of the most ancient belonging
to the Order of Cisteaux [the Cistercians]. It was established
[A. D. 1140] by Rotrou, the second count of Perche, and
undertaken to accomplish a vow made whilst in peril of
shipwreck." In the 17th century the monks had become
scandalous]y degenerate and dissolute. Their institution was
reformed by M. de Rancé, who assumed the direction as abbot in
1662, and who introduced the severe discipline for which the
monastery was afterwards famous. Among its rules was one of
absolute silence.

_C. Lancelot,
A Tour to Alet and La Grande Chartreuse,
volume 1, pages 113-186._

{3122}

TRASIMENE, Lake, Battle of (B. C. 217).

See PUNIC WARS: THE SECOND.

TRASTEVERE.

Trastevere was a suburb of Rome "as early as the time of
Augustus; it now contains the oldest houses in Rome, which
belong to the 11th and 12th centuries."

_B. G. Niebuhr,
Lectures on ancient Ethnography and Geography,
volume 2, page 103._

TRAUSI, The.

See THRACIANS.

TRAVENDAHL, Treaty of (1700).

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES: A. D. 1697-1700.

TRAVENSTADT, Battle of (1706).

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1701-1707.

TREASON.

See MAJESTAS.

TREATIES.

The Treaties of which account is given in this work are so
numerous that no convenience would be served by collecting
references to them under this general heading. They are
severally indexed under the names by which they are
historically known.

TREATY PORTS, The.

See CHINA: A. D. 1839-1812.

TREBIA, TREBBIA, Battle of the.

See PUNIC WARS: THE SECOND.

Battle.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (APRIL-SEPTEMBER).

TREBIZOND:
Origin of the city.

"Trebizond, celebrated in the retreat of the Ten Thousand as
an ancient colony of Greeks, derived its wealth and splendour
from the munificence of the Emperor Hadrian, who had
constructed an artificial port on a coast left destitute by
nature of secure harbours. The city was large and populous."

_E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 10._

TREBIZOND: A. D. 258.
Capture by the Goths.

See GOTHS: A. D. 258-267.

TREBIZOND: A. D. 1204-1461.
The Greek empire.

"The empire of Trebizond was the creation of accident. … The
destruction of a distant central government, when
Constantinople was conquered by the Frank Crusaders, left
[the] provincial administration without the pivot on which it
had revolved. The conjuncture was seized by a young man, of
whom nothing was known but that he bore a great name, and was
descended from the worst tyrant in the Byzantine annals, This
youth grasped the vacant sovereignty, and, merely by assuming
the imperial title, and placing himself at the head of the
local administration, founded a new empire. Power changed its
name and its dwelling, but the history of the people was
hardly modified. The grandeur of the empire of Trebizond
exists only in romance. Its government owed its permanence to
its being nothing more than a continuation of a
long-established order of civil polity, and to its making no
attempt to effect any social revolution." The young man who
grasped the sovereignty of this Asiatic fragment of the
shattered Byzantine empire was Alexius, a grandson of
Andronicus I., the last emperor at Constantinople of the
family of Comnenos. This Alexius and his brother David, who
had been raised in obscurity at Constantinople, escaped from
the city before it was taken by the Crusaders, and fled to the
coast of Colchis, "where their paternal aunt, Thamar,
possessed wealth and influence. Assisted by her power, and by
the memory of their tyrannical grandfather, who had been
popular in the east of Asia Minor, they were enabled to
collect an army of Iberian mercenaries. At the head of this
force Alexios entered Trebizond in the month of April 1204,
about the time Constantinople fell into the hands of the
Crusaders. He had been proclaimed emperor by his army on
crossing the frontier. To mark that he was the legitimate
representative of the imperial family of Komnenos, and to
prevent his being confounded with the numerous descendants of
females, or with the family of the emperor Alexius III.
(Angelos), who had arrogated to themselves his name, he
assumed the designation of Grand-Komnenos. Wherever he
appeared, he was acknowledged as the lawful sovereign of the
Roman empire." For a time Alexius of Trebizond, with the help
of his brother David, extended his dominions in Asia Minor
with rapidity and ease, and he was brought very soon into
collision with the other Greek emperor, Theodore Lascaris, who
had established himself at Nicæa. It seemed likely, at first,
that Trebizond would become the dominant power; but the
movement of events which favored that one of the rival empires
was presently stayed, and then reversed, even though Alexius
took aid from the Latin emperor at Constantinople. Not many
years later, in fact, the empire of Trebizond evaded
extinction at the hands of the Turkish Sultan of Iconium, or
Roum, only by paying tribute and acknowledging vassalage to
that sovereign. For sixty years the so-called empire continued
in a tributary relationship to the Seljuk sultans and to the
grand khan of the Mongols who overthrew them in 1244. But, if
not a very substantial empire during that period, it seems to
have formed an exceedingly prosperous and wealthy commercial
power, controlling not only a considerable coast territory on
its own side of the Euxine, but also Cherson, Gothia, and all
the Byzantine possessions in the Tauric Chersonesos; and "so
close was the alliance of interest that these districts
remained dependent on the government of Trebizond until the
period of its fall." On the decline of the Mongol power, the
empire of Trebizond regained its independence in 1280, and
maintained it for nearly a century, when it was once more
compelled to pay tribute to the later Mongol conqueror, Timur.
At the end of the 14th century the little "empire" was reduced
to a strip of coast, barely forty miles wide, extending from
Batoun to Kerasunt, and the separated city of Oinaion, with
some territory adjoining it. But, within this small compass,
"few countries in Europe enjoyed as much internal tranquility,
or so great security for private property." The commerce of
Trebizond had continued to flourish, notwithstanding frequent
quarrels and hostilities with the Genoese, who were the chief
managers of its trade with the west. But the decay of the
empire, politically, commercially, and morally, was rapid in
its later years. First becoming tributary to the Ottoman
conqueror of Constantinople, it finally shared the fate of the
Byzantine capital. The city of Trebizond was surrendered to
Mohammed II. in 1461. Its last emperor, David, was permitted
to live for a time, with his family, in the European dominions
of the Turk; but after a few years, on some suspicion of a
plot, he was put to death with his seven sons, and their
bodies were cast unburied to the dogs. The wife and mother of
the dead—the fallen empress Helena—guarded them and dug a
grave for them with her own hands. The Christian population of
Trebizond was expelled from the city and mostly enslaved. Its
place was taken by a Moslem colony.

_G. Finlay,
History of the Empire of Trebizond
(History of Greece and of the Empire of Trebizond)._

{3123}

TREBONIAN LAW, The.

See ROME: B. C. 57-52.

TREK, The Great.

See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1806-1881.

TREMECEN, The Kingdom of.

See BARBARY STATES: A. D. 1516-1535.

TREMONT, The Name.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1630.

TRENT, The Council of.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1537-1563.

TRENT AFFAIR, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (NOVEMBER).

TRENTON: A. D. 1776.
The surprise of the Hessians.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1776-1777 WASHINGTON'S RETREAT.

----------TRÈVES: Start--------

TRÈVES:
Origin.

Trèves was originally the chief town of the Treviri, from whom
it derived its name. When the Romans established a colony
there they called it Augusta Trevirorum. In time, the Augusta
was dropped and Trevirorum became Trèves, or Trier.

See TREVIRI.

TRÈVES:
Under the Romans.

"The town of the Treveri, named Augusta probably from the
first emperor, soon gained the first place in the Belgic
province; if, still, in the time of Tiberius, Durocortorum of
the Remi (Rheims) is named the most populous place of the
province and the seat of the governors, an author from the
time of Claudius already assigns the primacy there to the
chief place of the Treveri. But Treves became the capital of
Gaul—we may even say of the West—only through the remodelling
of the imperial administration under Diocletian. After Gaul,
Britain and Spain were placed under one supreme
administration, the latter had its seat in Treves; and
thenceforth Treves was also, when the emperors stayed in Gaul,
their regular residence, and, as a Greek of the fifth century
says, the greatest city beyond the Alps."

_T. Mommsen,
History of Rome,
book 8, chapter 3._

TRÈVES: A. D. 306.
The Ludi Francici at.

See FRANKS: A. D. 306.

TRÈVES: A. D. 364-376.
Capital of Valentinian and the Western Empire.

See ROM[E: A. D. 363-379.

TRÈVES: A. D. 402.
Abandoned by the Roman præfecture.

See BRITAIN: A. D. 407.

TRÈVES: A. D. 1125-1152.
Origin of the Electorate.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1125-1152.

TRÈVES: A. D. 1675.
Taken from the French by the Imperialists.

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1674-1678.

TRÈVES: A. D. 1689.
Threatened destruction by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1689-1690.

TRÈVES: A. D. 1697.
Restored to the Empire.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1697.

TRÈVES: A. D. 1704.
Taken by Marlborough.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1704.

TRÈVES: A. D. 1801-1803.
Extinction of the Electorate.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1801-1803.

----------TRÈVES: End--------

TREVILLIAN'S STATION, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (MAY-JUNE: VIRGINIA)
CAMPAIGNING IN THE SHENANDOAH.

TREVIRI, The.

The Treviri were one of the peoples of Gaul, in Cæsar's time,
"whose territory lay on the left bank of the Rhine and on both
sides of the Mosella (Mosel). Trier [ancient Treves] on the
Mosel was the head-quarters of the Treviri."

_G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 4, chapter 8._

TREVISAN MARCHES, Tyranny of Eccelino di Romano in the.

See VERONA: A. D. 1230-1259.

TRIAD SOCIETY, OR WATER-LILY SECT, The.

The most extensive of the many secret societies among the
Chinese is "the Tienti hwui, or San-hoh hwui, i. e. the Triad
Society. It was formerly known by the title of the Pih-lien
kiau, or Water-lily Sect, but having been proscribed by the
government, it sought by this alteration of name, and some
other slight changes, to evade the operation of the laws. In
fact, it still subsists in some of the remoter provinces under
its old name and organization. The known and indeed almost
openly avowed object of this society has been, for many years,
the overturn of the Mant-chou dynasty."

_The Chinese Rebellion
(North American Review, July, 1854)._

ALSO IN:
_Abbé Huc,
Christianity in China, &c.
volume 2, pages 274-277._

_H. A. Giles,
Historic China,
pages 395-399._

TRIAL BY COMBAT.

See WAGER OF BATTLE.

TRIANON TARIFF, The.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1806-1810.

TRIARII.

See LEGION, ROMAN.

TRIBE. TRIBUS.

See ROME, THE BEGINNING.

TRIBES, Greek.

See PHYLÆ.

TRIBOCES, The.

A people who, in Cæsar's time, were established on both banks
of the Rhine, occupying the central part of the modern Grand
Duchy of Baden and the opposite region of Gaul.

_Napoleon III.,
History of Cæsar,
book 3, chapter 2, foot-note._

See, also, VANGIONES.

TRIBON, The.

A garment of thick cloth and small size worn by Spartan
youths, and sometimes by old men.

_C. C. Felton,
Greece, Ancient and Modern,
course 2, lecture 7._

TRIBUNAL, The Revolutionary.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (FEBRUARY-APRIL.).

TRIBUNES, Consular, or Military.

See CONSULAR TRIBUNES.

TRIBUNES OF THE PLEBS.

See ROME: B. C. 494-492.

TRIBUNITIA, Potestas.

See POTESTAS TRIBUNITIA.

TRIBUTUM, The.

The tributum, a war-tax, collected from the Roman people in
the earlier periods of the Republic, was "looked upon as a
loan, and was returned on the termination of a successful war
out of the captured booty. … The principle that Rome was
justified in living at the expense of her subjects was
formally acknowledged when, in the year 167 B. C., the
tributum—the only direct tax which the Roman citizens paid—was
abolished, because the government could dispense with it after
the conquest of Macedonia. The entire burden and expense of
the administration were now put off upon the subjects."

_W. Ihne,
History of Rome,
book 6, chapter 7 (volume 4)._

TRICAMARON, Battle of (A. D. 533).

See VANDALS: A. D. 533-534.

TRICASSES.

The earlier name of the city of Troyes, France.

{3124}

TRICHINOPOLY:
Siege and relief (1751).

See INDIA: A. D. 1743-1752.

TRICOTEUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (OCTOBER).

TRIDENTINE COUNCIL.

The Council of Trent; so called from Tridentum, the ancient
Latin name of the town.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1537-1563.

TRIERARCHY.

See LITURGIES.

TRINACRIA.

The ancient Greek name of the island of Sicily.

TRINCOMALEE, Battle of (1767).

See INDIA: A. D. 1767-1769.

TRINIDAD: A. D. 1498.
Discovery by Columbus.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1498-1505.

TRINIDAD: A. D. 1801.
Acquisition by England.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1801-1802.

TRINITY HOUSE.

"Perhaps there is throughout Britain no more interesting
example of the innate power and varied developments of the old
gild principle, certainly no more illustrious survival of it
to modern times, than the Trinity House. It stands out now as
an institution of high national importance, whose history is
entwined with the early progress of the British navy and the
welfare and increase of our sea craft and seamanship: in an
age when the tendency is to assume state control over all
matters of national interest the Trinity House, a voluntary
corporation, still fulfils the public functions to which its
faithful labours, through a long course of years, have
established its right and title. Although its earliest records
appear to be lost or burned, there seems to be no doubt that
Henry VIII's charter of 1514 was granted to a brotherhood
already existing. … In the charter itself we read that the
shipmen or mariners of England 'may anew erect' a gild, and
lands and tenements in Deptford Strand, already in possession,
are referred to. Similar bodies were formed in other places;
in the fourteenth century there was a shipmen's gild at Lynn
and another at Hull; in the fifteenth century the shipmen were
one of the crafts of York. Mr. Barrett mentions that they also
had houses at Newcastle and Dover. The Hull gild (which also
happens to have been dedicated to the Trinity) flourished for
seventy-four years before receiving its first royal grant. The
objects to which it was devoted were akin to those of the
Deptford House, and Henry VIII incorporated it in 1547, just
about the time when most gilds, not of crafts, were destroyed.
… The charitable side of the Trinity House functions has
always been considerable; in 1815 they possessed no less than
144 almshouses, besides giving 7,012 pensions; but of late
years their funds applicable to such purposes have been
curtailed. … It is significant that in Edward VI's reign the
name and style of Gild was abandoned by the brethren for the
title of 'the Corporation of the Trinity House of Deptford
Strond.' Gilds now had come into disrepute. The functions of
the Trinity House have long been recognised of such value to
the public service that their honourable origin, so consonant
with other English institutions is apt to be forgotten. … To
cherish the 'science and art of mariners,' and to provide a
supply of pilots, especially for the Thames up to London, were
their prime duties. The Admiralty and Navy boards were as
administrative bodies in 1520, and the ship-building yard at
Deptford, with the store-houses there, 'was placed under the
direct control of the gild.' The Sea Marks Act of 1566,
established which throws considerable light on the position of
the company at that time, endued them with the power of
preserving old and setting up new sea marks or beacons round
the coasts, among which trees came under their purview. How
far their jurisdiction extended is not stated; it would be
interesting to know whether their progress round the whole
shores of Britain were gradual or not. It is, perhaps, for its
work in connexion with light-houses, light-ships, buoys, and
beacons, that the Trinity House is best known to the general
public. … It was only in 1836 that parliament 'empowered the
corporation to purchase of the crown, or from private
proprietors, all lights then in existence,' which are
therefore at present under their efficient central control. …
The principal matters in their sphere of action—the important
provision of pilots, the encouragement and supply of seamen,
ballastage and ballast, lights and buoys, the suppression of
piracy and privateers, tonnage measurement, the victualling of
the navy, their intimate connexion with the gradual growth and
armament of the navy, the curious right to appoint certain
consuls abroad—all these receive illustration at first hand
from the author's careful researches among state papers and
the muniments of the corporation."

_Lucy T. Smith,
Review of "The Trinity House of Deptford Strond";
by C. R. B. Barrett
(English Historical Review, April, 1894)._

TRINOBANTES, The.

The Trinobantes were the first of the tribes of Britain to
submit to Cæsar. They inhabited the part of the country now
embraced in the county of Essex and part of Middlesex. Their
chief town, or stronghold ("oppidum") was Camulodunum, where
the Romans afterwards founded a colony which became the modern
city of Colchester. Cunobelin, the Cymbeline of Shakespeare,
was a king of the Trinobantes who acquired extensive power.
One of the sons of Cunobelin, Caractacus, became the most
obstinate enemy of the Romans when they seriously began the
conquest of Britain, in the reign of Claudius.

_E. L. Cutts,
Colchester,
chapters 2-3._

ALSO IN:
_C. Merivale,
History of the Romans,
chapter 51._

See also,
BRITAIN: CELTIC TRIBES.

TRIOBOLON.

Three oboli,—the daily compensation paid in Athens to citizens
who served as judges in the great popular courts: afterwards
paid, likewise, to those who attended the assemblies of the
people.

_A. Boeckh,
Public Economy of Athens,
book 2, chapter 15._

TRIPLE ALLIANCE, The.

There have been a number of Triple Alliances formed in
European history; see, for example.

NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1668,
and SPAIN: A. D. 1713-1725.

But the one in recent times to which allusion is often made is
that in which Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, are the
three parties. It was formed by treaty in February, 1882, and
renewed in 1887. Its purpose is mutual defense, especially, no
doubt, against the apprehended combination of Russia with
France.

----------TRIPOLI: Start--------

TRIPOLI, North Africa:
Origin of the name of.

See LEPTIS MAGNA.

{3125}

TRIPOLI, North Africa:
History.

See BARBARY STATES.

TRIPOLI, Syria:
Capture by the Crusaders.
Destruction of the Library.
Formation of the Latin county.

See CRUSADES: A. D. 1104-1111;
and JERUSALEM: A. D. 1009-1144.

TRIPONTIUM.

A town in Roman Britain, where one of the great roads crossed
the Avon, near modern Lilburne.

_T. Wright,
Celt, Roman and Saxon,
chapter 5._

TRISAGION, The.

See CONSTANTINOPLE: A. D. 511-512.

TRI-SKELION. GAMMADION. FYLFOT-CROSS. SVASTIKA.

"One of the most remarkable instances of the migration of a
symbol is that afforded by the 'tri-skelion,' or, as we more
familiarly know it, 'the three legs of Man.' It first appears
on the coins of Lycia, circa B. C. 480; and then on those of
Sicily, where it was adopted by Agathocles, B. C. 317-307, but
not as a symbol of the morning, midday, and afternoon sun, but
of the land of Trinacria, i. e., 'Three Capes,' the ancient
name of Sicily; and finally on the coins of the Isle of Man,
on which it seems to refer rather to the position of that
island between England, Scotland, and Ireland, than to its
triangular shape. The tri-skelion of Lycia is made up of three
cocks' heads. … But on the coins of Sicily and of the Isle of
Man the tri-skelion consists of three human legs of an
identical pattern, excepting that those of the latter island
are spurred. This form of tri-skelion is borne on the arms of
several old English families, and it was in all probability
first introduced into this country [England] by some Crusader
returning from the East by way of Sicily. … The tri-skelion is
but a modification of the 'gammadion' or 'fyl-fot-cross,' the
'svastika' of the Hindus. The latter was long ago suspected by
Edward Thomas to be a sun-symbol; but this was not positively
proved until Mr. Percy Gardner found a coin of the ancient
city of Mesembria in Thrace stamped with a gammadion bearing
within its open centre an image of the sun—Mesembria meaning
the city of 'Mid-day,' and this name being figured on some of
its coins by the decisive legend _MEΣ卍_. … The gammadion
has travelled further afield than any other symbol of
antiquity. … Count Goblet d'Alviella traces it back at last to
the Troad as the cradle of its birth, some time anterior to
the 13th century B. C."

_The Athenœum, August 13, 1802
(Reviewing Comte Goblet d'Alviella's
"La Migration des Symboles")._

TRITTYES.

See PHYLÆ.

TRIUMPH AND OVATION, The Roman.

"The highest reward of the commander was the triumphal
entrance. At first it was awarded by senate and people to real
merit in the field, and its arrangement was simple and
dignified; but soon it became an opportunity of displaying the
results of insatiable Roman rapacity and love of conquest.
Only the dictators, consuls, prætors, and, in late republican
times, occasionally legates, were permitted by the senate to
enter Rome in triumph, the permission to the legate being
granted only in case he had commanded independently ('suis
auspiciis'), and conducted the army to Rome from a victorious
campaign 'in sua provincia.' As in later times it was
impossible to conduct the whole army from distant provinces to
Rome, the last-mentioned condition was dispensed with, the
claim of the commander to a triumph being acknowledged in case
in one of the battles gained by him 5,000 enemies had been
killed. The senate granted the expenses necessary for the
procession after the quæstor urbanus had examined and
confirmed the commander's claim. Streets and squares through
which the procession had to pass were festively adorned. The
temples were opened, and incense burnt on the altars.
Improvised stands were erected in the street, filled with
festive crowds shouting 'Io triumphe!' The commander, in the
meantime, collected his troops near the temples of Bellona and
Apollo, outside the gates of Rome. … The victor was met at the
'porta triumphalis' by the senate, the city magistrates, and
numerous citizens, who took the lead of the procession, while
lictors opened a way through the crowd. After the city
dignitaries followed tibicines, after them the booty. …
Fettered kings, princes, and nobles followed, doomed to
detention in the Mamertine prison. Next came sacrificial oxen
with gilt horns, accompanied by priests; and, finally,
preceded by singers, musicians, and jesters, the triumphal
chariot drawn by four horses. Clad in a toga picta and the
tunica palmata, temporarily taken from the statue of the
Capitoline Jupiter, the triumphator stood in his chariot
holding the eagle-crowned ivory sceptre in his hand, while a
servus publicus standing behind him held the corona
triumphalis over his head. The army brought up the rear of the
procession, which moved from the Campus Martius through the
circus of Flaminius to the Porta Carmentalis, and thence, by
way of the Velabrum and the Circus Maximus, the Via Sacra and
the Forum, to the Capitol. Here the triumphator deposited his
golden crown in the lap of the Capitoline Jupiter, and
sacrificed the usual suovetaurilia. … The ovatio was granted
for less important conquests, or to a general for victories
not won 'suis auspiciis.' The victor, adorned with the toga
prætexta and the myrtle crown, originally used to walk; in
later times he rode on horseback."

_E. Guhl and W. Koner,
Life of the Greeks and Romans,
section 100._

See, also, VIA SACRA.

TRIUMVIRATE,
The First.

See ROME: B. C. 63-58.

The Second.

See ROME: B. C. 44-42.

TROIS ÉVÊCHÉS, Les, and their acquisition by France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1547-1559, and 1670-1681;
and GERMANY: A. D. 1648.

TROISVILLE, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1794 (MARCH-JULY).

TROJA. TROY. TROAD. ILIUM.

"In the whole long extent of this Western coast [of Asia
Minor] no region occupies a fairer situation than the northern
projection, the peninsula jutting out between Archipelago,
Hellespont, and Propontis, of which the mountain-range of Ida,
abounding in springs, forms the centre. Its woody heights were
the seat of the Phrygian Mother of the Gods; in its depths it
concealed treasures of ore, which the dæmons of mining, the
Dactyli of Ida, were here first said to have been taught by
Cybele to win and employ. A hardy race of men dwelt on the
mountains so rich in iron, divided into several tribes, the
Cebrenes, the Gergithians, and above all the beauteous
Dardani, among whom the story went, how their ancestor,
Dardanus, had, under the protection of the Pelasgian Zeus,
founded the city of Dardania.
{3126}
Some of these Dardani descended from the highlands into the
tracts by the coast, which has no harbours, but an island
lying in front of it called Tenedos. Here Phœnicians had
settled and established purple-fisheries in the sea of Sigeum;
at a later period Hellenic tribes arrived from Crete and
introduced the worship of Apollo. In the secure waters between
Tenedos and the mainland took place that contact which drew
the Idæan peninsula into the intercourse subsisting between
the coasts of the Archipelago. … In the midst of this
intercourse on the coast arose, out of the tribe of the
Dardani, which had deserted the hills, the branch of the
Trojans. … Thus, in the midst of the full life of the nations
of Asia Minor, on the soil of a peninsula (itself related to
either side) on which Phrygians and Pelasgians, Assyrians,
Phœnicians, and Hellenic mariners met, grows up the empire of
the Dardanides. The springs of the Ida range collect into
rivers, of which two flow to the Propontis, and one, the
Scamander, into the Ægean. The latter first flows through his
bed high in the mountains, through which he then breaks in a
narrow rocky gorge, and quitting the latter enters the flat
plain of his water-shed, surrounded on three sides by gentle
declivities, and open on the West to the sea. … In the
innermost corner of this plain projects a rocky height with
precipitous sides, as if it would bar the passage of the river
breaking forth from the ravine. Skirted in a wide curve by
Scamander on the East, it sinks to the West in gentle
declivities, where numerous veins of water spring from the
earth; these unite into two rivulets, distinguished by the
abundance and temperature of their water, which remain the
same at all seasons of the year. This pair of rivulets is the
immutable mark of nature, by which the height towering above
is recognized as the citadel of Ilium. They are the same
rivulets to which of old the Trojan women descended from the
Scæan gate to fetch water or to wash linen, and to this day
the same ancient walls close around the flowing water and
render it more easily available. The source of these rivulets
was the seat of power. On the gentler declivity lay Troja;
over which towered the steep citadel of Pergamus, the view
from whose turrets commanded the entire plain, … and beyond
the plain the broad sea itself. … No royal seat of the ancient
world could boast a grander site than this Trojan citadel."

_E. Curtius,
History of Greece,
book 1, chapter 3._

The site contemplated by Dr. Curtius in the description quoted
above is some five miles higher up the valley of the Scamander
than Hissarlik, where Dr. Schliemann's excavations are
believed by many scholars to have now established the location
of ancient Troy.

_H. Schliemann,
Ilios: the City and Country of the Trojans._

"Dr. Schliemann described in his 'Troja' and 'Ilios' seven
successive layers of city ruins found in his excavations at
Hissarlik. This number was increased in 1890 to nine by the
discovery of two layers intervening between the highest (or
Roman) layer, formerly called the seventh, and the sixth, or
so-called Lydian layer. These two lavers were, from the
character of the finds, attributed to the early and the later
Greek period. Dr. Schliemann was baffled by the fact that he
could discover no acropolis for the sixth, seventh, or eighth
layers. Dr. Dörpfeld, who in May [1893] resumed the
excavations at the expense of Dr. Schliemann's widow, makes in
the Mittheilungen of the German Archæological Society (xviii,
2), which appeared November 7, a significant report clearly
establishing the fact that the Romans, in building the great
temple of Ilian Athene, cut down the highest part of the
acropolis, and thus destroyed all traces of the acropolis
belonging to those layers. The excavations of 1890 had brought
to light two magnificent buildings in the sixth layer, besides
'Lydian' jars, much pottery, and one entire vase of the
Mykenæan or Homeric period. The evidence favored the
identification of this layer with the Homeric Troy or the
period of Mykenæ and Tiryns. On the other hand, the fact that
only two buildings find no city wall had been discovered for
this layer seemed to indicate that the Troy of Priam must be
referred to a lower level, namely, the second, where a
magnificent wall of prehistoric style had been discovered,
although its architecture and the character of the finds
suggested a more primitive culture than that painted in
Homeric song. The sixth layer has now in large part been
exposed by Dr. Dörpfeld and reveals the most imposing wall of
pre-Roman times. The remains of seven vast buildings have been
brought to light which have in part the ground plan of the
ancient Greek temples and of the halls of Tiryns and Mykenæ,
though surpassing those in proportions and in the carefulness
of their architecture. The remains of one admirable building
contained a hall 37 feet by 30. … Further, Dr. Dörpfeld
uncovered the fortifications of this city in many places, and
found them some sixteen feet in thickness with a still greater
height. On the outside the wall has a uniform slope. A
strong-tower fifty-eight feet in diameter contains an inner
staircase. In strength, proportions, and careful architecture
this tower will compare favorably with any tower of Greek
antiquity. The neat work of the corners and the nice dressing
of the stones might refer it to a period later than Homer, to
the historical Greek period, did we not know that in
historical times Troy was too insignificant to need the
erection of such walls. Moreover, the tower, built over in
Greek times, and partly damaged by the addition of an outer
stair, was finally in Roman times buried under massive
foundations. The correspondences in stone-work of the wall and
the houses place the tower and the buildings evidently in the
same layer. In the houses were found both local pottery and
also pottery of the Mykenæan style."

_The Nation,
November 30, 1893._

"The latest news from the explorations at Hissarlik (Levant
Herald July 7) comes to us from the owner of the site, Mr.
Frank Calvert, United States consul, Dardanelles. It was
readily seen that the second, or burned city which Dr.
Schliemann enthusiastically assumed to be the city of Priam,
instead of solving the question of the 'Iliad,' offered new
problems to the archæologist. The precious objects and the
works of art there found were evidently ruder and more ancient
by some centuries than those of Mycenæ, and therefore
decidedly earlier than Homeric Troy. In the sixth city,
however, pottery of a Mycenæan type was discovered, and this
led Dr. Dörpfield, assisted by Mrs. Schliemann, and later by
the German Government, to extend excavations on this level,
with results that are now proving fruitful, and that may
possibly be conclusive. Curiously enough, Dr. Schliemann's
excavations obscured rather than aided this particular
investigation.
{3127}
The area of the sixth city was twice as great as the space
covered by the successive acropolises of the other five; and,
in consequence, their debris was dumped on the very spot which
Dr. Dörpfield has just been clearing. The massive walls he has
uncovered, from five to six metres broad, the lofty towers,
and the street which has been traced, may provisionally be
assumed to belong to the Homeric Troy."

_The Nation,
August 9, 1894._

ALSO IN:
_C. Schuchardt,
Schliemann's Excavations._

See, also,
ASIA MINOR: THE GREEK COLONIES;
and HOMER.

TROPAION.

The trophy erected by a victorious army, among the Greeks, on
the spot from which the enemy had been driven. The trophy was
constructed in some manner out of the booty taken.

_E. Guhl and W. Koner,
Life of the Greeks and Romans,
section 54._

TROPPAU, Congress of.

See VERONA, CONGRESS OF.

TROUBADOURS. TROUVÈRES. JOGLARS. JONGLEURS.

"The poets of the South of France during the Middle Age called
themselves 'Trobadors,' that is to say 'inventers' or
'finders'; and they adapted the 'langue d'oc,' also called the
Romansh of the South, or the Provençal, to the expression of
poetical sentiments. It is probable that poets of this
description existed as early as the formation of the idiom in
which they wrote. At any rate, we know that toward the year
1000 they already enjoyed considerable distinction, although
there is scarcely anything now left us from the earliest
period of their existence. … In regard to the time within
which the poetry of the Troubadours was in vogue, M. Fauriel
assumes only two periods. But it may perhaps be more
conveniently divided into three, as follows: The first
commences with its origin, as a popular poetry, and extends to
the time when it became an art and a profession, the poetry of
the nobles and the courts, that is to say, from about 1090 to
1140. The second is the period of its culmination, which
extends from the year 1140 to 1250. The third is the period of
its decadence, from 1250 to 1290."

_G. J. Adler,
Introduction to Fauriel's
"History of Provençal Poetry."_

"Sufficient has been said … to show the superiority of lyrical
over epic poetry in Provence. This inequality of the two
branches implied a commensurate difference of praise and
social esteem awarded to those who excelled in either of them,
and it is perhaps from this point of view that the two great
divisions of poets in the 'langue d'oc,' respectively
described as 'joglars' and 'trobadors,' or, in the French and
generally adopted form of the word, 'troubadours,' may be most
distinctly recognised. … It seems sufficiently established
that the verb 'trobar' and its derivative noun first and
foremost apply to lyrical poetry. To speak therefore of the
Troubadour as the singer of songs, of cansos and sirventeses
and albas and retroensas is a correct and tolerably
comprehensive definition."

_F. Hueffer,
The Troubadours,
chapter 6._