Chapter CCCXCIV: Section 7 (22)

_R. Lodge,
History of Modern Europe,
chapter 12, section 9._

See ITALY: A. D. 1701-1713,
and UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1592.
French invasion of the Vaudois.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1591-1593.

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1597-1598.
Invasion by the French.
Peace with France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1593-1598.

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1600.
French invasion.
Cession of territory to France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1599-1610.

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1602-1603.
Abortive attempt upon Geneva.
Treaty of St. Julien with that city.

See GENEVA: A. D. 1602-1603.

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1620-1626.
The Valtelline War.
Alliance with France.
Unsuccessful attempt against Genoa.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1624-1626.

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1627-1631.
War over the succession to the duchy of Mantua.
French invasion.
Extension of territory.

See ITALY: A. D. 1627-1631.

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1635.
Alliance with France against Spain.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1634-1630.

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1635-1659.
Alliance with France against Spain.
Civil war and foreign war.-
Sieges of Turin.
Territory restored.

See ITALY: A. D. 1635-1659.

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1655.
Second persecution of the Waldenses.

See WALDENSES: A. D. 1655.

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1690.
Joins the Grand Alliance against France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1689-1690.

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1690-1691.
Overrun by the armies of France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1689-1691.

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1691.
Toleration granted to the Vaudois.

See WALDENSES: A. D. 1691.

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1693.
French victory at Marsaglia.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1693 (OCTOBER).

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1695-1696.
Desertion of the Grand Alliance by the Duke.
Treaty with France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1695-1696.

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1713.
Acquisition of Sicily from Spain.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1717-1719.
Sicily exchanged by the Duke for Sardinia,
with the title of King.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1713-1725;
also, ITALY: A. D. 1715-1735.

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1792.
Savoy annexed to the French Republic.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1792 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER).

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1796.
Savoy ceded by Sardinia to France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1796 (APRIL-OCTOBER).

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1798.
Piedmont taken by the French.
Its sovereignty relinquished by the King of Sardinia.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1798-1799 (AUGUST-APRIL).

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1815.
Cession of a part of Savoy to France.

See VIENNA, THE CONGRESS OF.

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1860.
Final cession of Savoy to France.

See ITALY: A. D. 1859-1861.

----------SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: End--------

SAVOY CONFERENCE, The.

See ENGLAND: A: D. 1661 (APRIL-JULY).

SAWÂD, THE.

"The name Sawâd is given by the Arab writers to the whole
fertile tract between the Euphrates and the Desert, from Hit
to the Persian Gulf."

_G. Rawlinson,
Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy,
chapter 26, foot-note._

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 632-651.

SAXA RUBRA, Battle of (A. D. 312).

See ROME: A. D. 305-323.

SAXE-COBURG, SAXE-GOTHA, SAXE-WEIMAR, etc.

See SAXONY: A. D. 1180-1553;
and WEIMAR.

SAXON HEPTARCHY.

See ENGLAND: 7TH CENTURY.

SAXON SHORE, Count of the (Comes Littoris Saxonici).

The title of the Roman officer who had military command of the
coast of Britain, between the Wash and the Isle of Wight,
which was most exposed to the ravages of the Saxons.

See BRITAIN: A. D. 323-337.

----------SAXONS: Start--------

SAXONS, The.

"In the reign of Caracalla [A. D. 212-217] Rome first heard of
the Goths and Alemanni; a little more than half a century
later the Franks appear; and about the same time the Saxons,
who had been named and placed geographically by Ptolemy [A. D.
130-160], make their first mark in history. They are found
employed in naval and piratical expeditions on the coasts of
Gaul in A. D. 287. Whatever degree of antiquity we may be
inclined to ascribe to the names of these nations, and there
is no need to put a precise limit to it, it can scarcely be
supposed that they sprang from insignificance and obscurity to
strength and power in a moment.
{2810}
It is far more probable that under the names of Frank and
Saxon in the fourth century had been sunk the many better
known earlier names of tribes who occupied the same seats. …
The Cherusci, the Marsi, the Dulgibini and the Chauci may have
been comprehended under the name of Saxons. … Whilst the
nations on the Lower Rhine were all becoming Franks, those
between the Rhine and the Oder were becoming Saxons; the name
implied as yet no common organisation, at the most only an
occasional combination for attack or defence."

_W. Stubbs,
Constitutional History of England,
chapter 3 (volume 1)._

"The hypothesis respecting the Saxons is as follows: The name
Saxon was to the Kelts of Britain what German was to those of
Gaul. Or, if not, what Suevi was—a name somewhat more
specific. It probably applied to the Germans of the sea-coast,
and the water-systems of the Lower Rhine, Weser, Lower Elbe,
and Eyder; to Low Germans on the Rhine, to Frisians and Saxons
on the Elbe, and to North Frisians on the Eyder. All the
Angles were Saxons, but all the Saxons were not Angles. The
reasoning in favour of this view is as follows:—That Saxon was
a Britannic term is undenied. The Welsh and Gaels call us
Saxons at the present moment. The Romans would take their name
for certain Germans as they found it with the Britons. The
Britons and Romans using the same name would be as two to one
in favour of the Keltic name taking ground. It would be Roman
and Keltic against a German name single-handed. The only
question is whether the name Saxon was exclusively Britannic
(Keltic), i. e., not German also. … I think, upon the whole,
that Saxon was a word like 'Greek,' i. e., a term which, in
the language of the Hellenes, was so very special, partial,
and unimportant, as to have been practically a foreign term,
or, at least, anything but a native name; whilst in that of
the Romans it was one of general and widely extended import.
Hence, mutatis mutandis, it is the insignificant Saxones of
the neck of the Cimbric Chersonese, and the three Saxon
islands, first mentioned by Ptolemy, who are the analogues of
the equally unimportant Græci of Epirus; and these it was
whose name eventually comprised populations as different as
the Angles, and the Saxons of Saxony, even as the name Græcus
in the mouth of a Roman comprised Dorians, Æolians,
Macedonians, Athenians, Rhodians, &c. In this way the name was
German; but its extended import was Keltic and Roman."

_R. G. Latham,
The Germany of Tacitus: Epilegomena,
section 48._

See, also, GERMANY: THE NATIONAL NAMES;
and ANGLES AND JUTES.

SAXONS:
The sea-rovers of the 5th century.

"At the end of a long letter, written by Sidonius [Apolinaris,
Bishop, at Clermont, in Auvergne, A. D. 471-488] to his friend
Nammatius [an officer of the Channel fleet of the Romans, then
chiefly occupied in watching and warding off the Saxon
pirates], after dull compliments and duller banter, we
suddenly find flashed upon us this life-like picture, by a
contemporary hand, of the brothers and cousins of the men, if
not of the very men themselves who had fought at Aylesford
under Hengest and Horsa, or who were slowly winning the
kingdom of the South Saxons: 'Behold, when I was on the point
of concluding this epistle in which I have already chattered
on too long, a messenger has suddenly arrived from Saintonge
with whom I have spent some hours in conversing about you and
your doings, and who constantly affirms that you have just
sounded your trumpet on board the fleet, and that with the
duties of a sailor and a soldier combined you are roaming
along the winding shores of the Ocean, looking out for the
curved pinnaces of the Saxons. When you see the rowers of that
nation you may at once make up your mind that everyone of them
is an arch-pirate, with such wonderful unanimity do all at
once command, obey, teach, and learn their one chosen business
of brigandage. For this reason I ought to warn you to be more
than ever on your guard in this warfare. Your enemy is the
most truculent of all enemies. Unexpectedly he attacks, when
expected he escapes, he despises those who seek to block his
path, he overthrows those who are off their guard, he always
succeeds in cutting off the enemy whom he follows, while he
never fails when he desires to effect his own escape.
Moreover, to these men a shipwreck is capital practice rather
than an object of terror. The dangers of the deep are to them,
not casual acquaintances, but intimate friends. For since a
tempest throws the invaded off their guard, and prevents the
invaders from being descried from afar, they hail with joy the
crash of waves on the rocks, which gives them their best
chance of escaping from other enemies than the elements. Then
again, before they raise the deep-biting anchor from the
hostile soil, and set sail from the Continent for their own
country, their custom is to collect the crowd of their
prisoners together, by a mockery of equity to make them cast
lots which of them shall undergo the iniquitous sentence of
death, and then at the moment of departure to slay every tenth
man so selected by crucifixion, a practice which is the more
lamentable because it arises from a superstitious notion that
they will thus ensure for themselves a safe return. Purifying
themselves as they consider by such sacrifices, polluting
themselves as we deem by such deeds of sacrilege, they think
the foul murders they thus commit are acts of worship to their
gods, and they glory in extorting cries of agony instead of
ransoms from these doomed victims.'"

_T. Hodgkin,
Italy and Her Invaders,
book 3, chapter 3._

SAXONS: A. D. 451.
At the Battle of Chalons.

In the allied army of Romans and barbarians which count Aetius
brought together to encounter the Hun, Attila, on the great
and terrible battlefield of Chalons, July, 451, there is
mention of the "Saxones." "How came our fathers thither; they,
whose homes were in the long sandy levels of Holstein? As has
been already pointed out, the national migration of the Angles
and Saxons to our own island had already commenced, perhaps in
part determined by the impulse northward of Attila's own
subjects. Possibly, like the Northmen, their successors, the
Saxons may have invaded both sides of the English Channel at
once, and may on this occasion have been standing in arms to
defend against their old foe some newly-won possessions in
Normandy or Picardy."

_T. Hodgkin,
Italy and Her Invaders,
book 2, chapter 3._

SAXONS: A. D. 477-527.
Conquests in Britain.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 477-527.

SAXONS: A. D. 528-729.
Struggles against the Frank dominion, before Charlemagne.

See GERMANY: A. D. 481-768.

{2811}

SAXONS: A. D. 772-804.
Conquest by Charlemagne.

"In the time of Charlemagne, the possessions of this great
league [the Saxons] were very extensive, stretching, at one
point, from the banks of the Rhine nearly to the Oder, and on
the other hand, from the North Sea to the confines of Hesse
and Thuringia. Warlike in their habits, vigorous in body,
active and impatient in mind, their geographical situation,
operating together with their state of barbarism, rendered
them pirates, extending the predatory excursions, common to
all the northern tribes, to the sea as well as to the land. …
They held, from an early period, greater part of the islands
scattered round the mouths of the German rivers; and, soon
beginning to extend their dominion, they captured, at
different times, all those on the coast of France and in the
British sea. Not contented, however, with this peculiar and
more appropriate mode of warfare, the Saxons who remained on
land, while their fellow-countrymen were sweeping the ocean,
constantly turned their arms against the adjacent continental
countries, especially after the conquest of Britain had, in a
manner, separated their people, and satisfied to the utmost
their maritime cupidity in that direction. Surpassing all
nations, except the early Huns, in fierceness, idolaters of
the most bloody rites, insatiable of plunder, and persevering
in the purpose of rapine to a degree which no other nation
ever knew, they were the pest and scourge of the north.
Happily for Europe, their government consisted of a multitude
of chiefs, and their society of a multitude of independent
tribes, linked together by some bond that we do not at present
know, but which was not strong enough to produce unity and
continuity of design. Thus they had proceeded from age to age,
accomplishing great things by desultory and individual
efforts; but up to the time of Charlemagne, no vast and
comprehensive mind, like that of Attila, had arisen amongst
them, to combine all the tribes under the sway of one monarch,
and to direct all their energies to one great object. It was
for neighbouring kings, however, to remember that such a chief
might every day appear. … Such was the state of the Saxons at
the reunion of the French [or Frank] monarchy under
Charlemagne; and it would seem that the first step he proposed
to himself, as an opening to all his great designs, was
completely to subdue a people which every day ravaged his
frontier provinces, and continually threatened the very
existence of the nations around."

_G. P. R. James,
History of Charlemagne,
book 3._

For generations before Charlemagne—from the period, in fact,
of the sons of Clovis, early in the sixth century—the Frank
kings had claimed supremacy over the Saxons and counted them
among the tributaries of their Austrasian or German monarchy.
Repeatedly, too, the Saxons had been forced to submit
themselves and acknowledge the yoke, in terms, while they
repudiated it in fact. When Charlemagne took in hand the
conquest of this stubborn and barbarous people, he seems to
have found the task as arduous as though nothing had been done
in it before him. His first expedition into their country was
undertaken in 772, when he advanced with fire and sword from
the Rhine at Mayence to the Diemel in the Hessian country. It
was on this occasion that he destroyed, near the head-waters
of the Lippe, the famous national idol and fane of the Saxons
called the Irminsul or Herminsaule supposed to be connected
with the memory of Hermann, the Cheruscan patriot chief who
destroyed the Roman legions of Varus. The campaign resulted in
the submission of the Saxons, with a surrender of hostages to
guarantee it. But in 774 they were again in arms, and the next
summer Charlemagne swept their country to beyond the Weser
with the besom of destruction. Once more they yielded and
gave hostages, who were taken to Frank monasteries and made
Christians of. But the peace did not last a twelvemonth, and
there was another great campaign in 776, which so terrified
the turbulent heathen that they accepted baptism in large
numbers, and a wholesale conversion took place at Paderborn in
May, 777. But a chief had risen at last among the Saxons who
could unite them, and who would not kneel to Charlemagne nor
bow his head to the waters of baptism. This was Wittekind, a
Westphalian, brother-in-law of the king of the Danes and
friend of the Frisian king, Ratbod. While Charlemagne was in
Spain, in 778, Wittekind roused his countrymen to a rising
which cleared their land of crosses, churches, priests and
Frank castles at one sweep. From that time until 785 there
were campaigns every year, with terrible carnage and
destruction in the Saxon country and industrious baptising of
the submissive. At Badenfield, at Bockholz, near Zutphen, and
at Detmold, there were fierce battles in which the Saxons
suffered most; but; at Sonnethal, on the Weser (the
Dachtelfield), in 782, the Franks were fearfully beaten and
slaughtered. Charlemagne took a barbarous vengeance for this
reverse by beheading no less than 4,500 Saxon prisoners at
Verden, on the Aller. Three years later, the country of the
Saxons having been made, for the most part, a famine-smitten
desert, they gave up the struggle. Even Wittekind accepted
Christianity, became a monk—a missionary—a canonized saint—
and disappeared otherwise from history. According to legend,
the blood of more than 200,000 Saxons had "changed the very
color of the soil, and the brown clay of the Saxon period gave
way to the red earth of Westphalia." For seven years the
Saxons were submissive and fought in Charlemagne's armies
against other foes. Then there was a last despairing attempt
to break the conqueror's yoke, and another long war of twelve
years' duration. It ended in the practical annihilation of the
Saxons as a distinct people in Germany. Many thousands of them
were transplanted to other regions in Gaul and elsewhere;
others escaped to Denmark and were absorbed into the great
rising naval and military power of the Northmen. The survivors
on their own soil were stripped of their possessions. "The
Saxon war was conducted with almost unparalleled ferocity."

_J. I. Mombert,
History of' Charles the Great,
book 2, chapters 3-4._

ALSO IN:
_P. Godwin,
History of France: Ancient Gaul,
chapters 16-17._

----------SAXONS: End--------

{2812}

SAXONS OF BAYEUX.

"The district of Bayeux, occupied by a Saxon colony in the
latest days of the old Roman Empire, occupied again by a
Scandinavian colony as the result of its conquest by Rolf [or
Rollo, the Northman], has retained to this day a character
which distinguishes it from every other Romance-speaking
portion of the Continent. The Saxons of Bayeux preserved their
name and their distinct existence under the Frankish dominion;
we can hardly doubt that the Scandinavian settlers found some
parts at least of the district still Teutonic, and that
nearness of blood and speech exercised over them the same
influence which the same causes exercised over the
Scandinavian settlers in England. Danes and Saxons coalesced
into one Teutonic people, and they retained their Teutonic
language and character long after Rouen had become, in speech
at least, no less French than Paris. With their old Teutonic
speech, the second body of settlers seem to have largely
retained their old Teutonic religion, and we shall presently
find Bayeux the centre of a heathen and Danish party in the
Duchy, in opposition to Rouen, the centre of the new speech
and the new creed. The blood of the inhabitants of the Bessin
must be composed of nearly the same elements, mingled in
nearly the same proportions, as the blood of the inhabitants
of the Danish districts of England."

_E. A. Freeman,
History of the Norman Conquest of England,
chapter 4._

----------SAXONY: Start--------

SAXONY:
The old Duchy.

"The great duchy of Saxony [as it existed under the
Carolingian empire and after the separation of Germany from
France] consisted of three main divisions, Westfalia, Engern
or Angria, and Eastfalia. Thuringia to the south-east, and the
Frisian lands to the north-west, may be looked on as in some
sort appendages to the Saxon duchy. The duchy was also capable
of any amount of extension towards the east, and the lands
gradually won from the Wends on this side were all looked on
as additions made to the Saxon territory. But the great Saxon
duchy was broken up at the fall of Henry the Lion [A. D.
1191]. The archiepiscopal Electors of Köln received the title
of Dukes of Westfalia and Engern. But in the greater part of
those districts the grant remained merely nominal, though the
ducal title, with a small actual Westfalian duchy, remained to
the electorate till the end. From these lands the Saxon name
may be looked on as having altogether passed away. The name of
Saxony, as a geographical expression, clave to the Eastfalian
remnant of the old duchy, and to Thuringia and the Slavonic
conquests to the east. In the later division of Germany these
lands formed the two circles of Upper and Lower Saxony; and it
was within their limits that the various states arose which
have kept on the Saxon name to our own time. From the
descendants of Henry the Lion himself, and from the allodial
lands which they kept, the Saxon name passed away, except so
far as they became part of the Lower-Saxon circle. They held
their place as princes of the Empire, no longer as Dukes of
Saxony, but as Dukes of Brunswick, a house which gave Rome one
Emperor and England a dynasty of kings. After some of the
usual divisions, two Brunswick principalities finally took
their place on the map, those of Lüneburg and Wolfenbüttel,
the latter having the town of Brunswick for its capital. The
Lüneburg duchy grew. Late in the seventeenth century it was
raised to the electoral rank, and early in the next century it
was finally enlarged by the acquisition of the bishoprics of
Bremen and Verden. Thus was formed the Electorate, and
afterwards Kingdom, of Hannover, while the simple ducal title
remained with the Brunswick princes of the other line."

_E. A. Freeman,
History Geography of Europe,
chapter 8, section 1._

See, also, GERMANY: A. D. 843-962.

SAXONY: A. D. 911-1024.
The Imperial House.

See GERMANY: A. D. 911-936; 936-973; and 973-1122.

SAXONY: A. D. 1073-1075.
Revolt against Henry IV.

The Saxons were still unreconciled to the transfer of the
imperial dignity from their own ducal family to the House of
Franconia, when the third of the Franconian emperors, Henry
IV., came to the throne while still a boy. His long minority
encouraged them to a habit of independent feeling, while his
rash and injudicious measures when he grew to manhood provoked
their raging enmity. They were still a turbulent, wild people,
and he undertook to force the yoke of the empire on their
necks, by means of garrisoned fortresses and castles,
distributed through their land. The garrisons were insolent,
the people were not meek, and in 1073 a furious revolt broke
out. "'All Saxony,' says a chronicler, 'revolted, as one man,
from the king,' and marched, 80,000 strong, to the Hartzburg,
a stately citadel near Goslar, which the king had built for a
residence upon a commanding height. After useless
negotiations, Henry made a narrow escape by flight. When he
then summoned his princes around him, no one came; and here
and there it began to be said that he must be entirely
abandoned and another monarch chosen. In this extremity, the
cities alone remained faithful to the emperor, who for some
time lay sick almost to death in his loyal city of Worms."
Henry's energy, and the great abilities which he possessed,
enabled him to recover his command of resources and to bring a
strong army into the field against the Saxons, in the early
summer of 1075. They offered submission and he might have
restored peace to his country in an honorable way; but his
headstrong passions demanded revenge. "After a march of
extraordinary rapidity, he fell suddenly upon the Saxons and
their allies, the Thuringians, on the meadows of the Unstrutt,
at Langensalza, near Hohenburg. His army drawn up in an order
resembling that which Otto the Great had formed on the Lech
[against the Hungarians], obtained, after a fierce
hand-to-hand fight of nine hours, a bloody victory. When the
Saxons finally yielded and fled, the battle became a massacre.
… It is asserted that of the foot-soldiers, who composed the
mass of the Saxon army of 60,000, hardly any escaped; though
of the noblemen, who had swift horses, few were slain. But it
was a battle of Germans with Germans, and on the very evening
of the struggle, the lamentations over so many slain by
kindred hands could not be suppressed in the emperor's own
camp. Yet for the time the spirit of Saxon independence was
crushed. Henry was really master of all Germany, and seemed to
have established the imperial throne again." But little more
than a year afterwards, Henry, under the ban of the great Pope
Gregory VII., with whom he had quarrelled, was again deserted
by his subjects. Again he recovered his footing and maintained
a civil war until his own son deposed him, in 1105. The next
year he died.

_C. T. Lewis,
History of Germany,
book 2, chapter 7, sections 13-20._

ALSO IN:
_W. Menzel,
History of Germany,
chapter 142._

See, also, GERMANY: A. D. 973-1122.

SAXONY: A. D. 1125-1152.
The origin of the electorate.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1125-1152.

{2813}

SAXONY: A. D. 1178-1183.
The dissolution of the old duchy.

In an account given elsewhere of the origin of the Guelf and
Ghibelline parties and their names (see GUELFS AND
GHIBELLINES), the circumstances under which Henry the Proud,
in 1138, was stripped of the duchy of Saxony, and the duchy of
Bavaria, have been briefly related. This Duke Henry the Proud
died soon after that event, leaving a son who acquired the
name of Henry the Lion. The Emperor Conrad, whose hostility to
the father had been the cause of his ruin, now restored to the
son, Henry the Lion, his duchy of Saxony, but required him to
renounce the Bavarian duchy. But Conrad, dying in 1152, was
succeeded on the imperial throne by his nephew, Frederick
Barbarossa, who entertained a friendly feeling for the young
Duke of Saxony, and who restored to him, in 1156, the whole of
his father's forfeited possessions, Bavaria included. By his
own warlike energies, Henry the Lion extended his dominions
still further, making a conquest of the Obotrites, one of the
tribes of heathen Slaves or Wends who occupied the Mecklenburg
region on the Baltic. He was, now, the most powerful of the
princes of the Germanic empire, and one of the most powerful
in Europe. But he used his power haughtily and arbitrarily and
raised up many enemies against himself. At length there arose
a quarrel between the Emperor and Duke Henry, which the latter
embittered by abruptly quitting the emperor's army, in Italy,
with all his troops, at a time when (A. D. 1175) the latter
was almost ruined by the desertion. From that moment Henry the
Lion was marked, as his father had been, for ruin. Accusations
were brought against him in the diet; he was repeatedly
summoned to appear and meet them, and he obstinately refused
to obey the summons. At length, A. D. 1178, he was formally
declared to be a rebel to the state, and the "imperial ban"
was solemnly pronounced against him. "This sentence placed
Henry without the pale of the laws, and his person and his
states were at the mercy of everyone who had the power of
injuring them. The archbishop of Cologne, his ancient enemy,
had the ban promulgated throughout Saxony, and at his command
Godfrey, Duke of Brabant; Philip, Count of Flanders; Otho,
Count of Guelders; Thierry, Lord of Cleves; William of
Juliers, with the Lords of Bonn Senef, Berg, and many others,
levied forces, and joining the archbishop, entered Westphalia,
which they overran and laid waste, before he was aware of
their intentions." This was the beginning of a long struggle,
in which Henry made a gallant resistance; but the odds were
too heavily against him. His friends and supporters gradually
fell away, his dominions were lost, one by one, and in 1183 he
took refuge in England, at the court of Henry II., whose
daughter Matilda he had married. After an exile of three years
he was permitted to return to Germany and his alodial estates
in Saxony were restored to him. The imperial fiefs were
divided. The archbishop of Cologne received the greater part
of Westphalia, and Angria. Bernard, Count of Anhalt, got the
remainder of the old Saxon duchy, with its ducal title. When
Henry the Lion died, in 1195, the alodial possessions that he
had recovered were divided between his three sons.

_Sir A. Halliday,
Annals of the House of Hanover,
book 4 (volume 1)._

Fifty years afterwards these were converted into imperial
fiefs and became the two duchies of the house of Brunswick,
—Lüneburg and Wolfenbüttel, afterwards Hanover and
Brunswick—the princes of which represented the old house of
Saxony and inherited the name of Guelf.

ALSO IN:
_H. Hallam,
The Middle Ages,
chapter 5._

See, also,
SAXONY: THE OLD DUCHY; GERMANY: A. D. 1138-1268;
ITALY: A. D. 1174-1183.

SAXONY: A. D. 1180-1553.
The later Duchy and Electorate.
The House of Wettin.
Its Ernestine and Albertine lines, and their many branches.

"When Henry the Lion was deprived of the Duchy of Saxony in
1180, it [reduced to a small district around Lauenberg] was
given to Bernhard, the youngest son of Albert the Bear,
Elector of Brandenburg, and it continued with his descendants
in the male line till 1422, when it was sold by the Emperor
Sigismond to Frederick, surnamed the Warlike, Margrave of
Misnia, descended in the female line from the Landgraves of
Thuringen."

_Sir A. Halliday,
Annals of the House of Hanover,
volume 1, page 426._

This line has been known as the House of Wettin, taking that
name from Dedo, count of Wettin, who was the first margrave of
Misnia, or Meissen; being invested with the dignity in 1048.
"The Wettin line of Saxon princes, the same that yet endures
[1855], known by sight to every English creature (for the high
individual, Prince Albert, is of it), had been lucky enough to
combine in itself, by inheritance, by good management, chiefly
by inheritance and mere force of survival, all the Three
separate portions and divided dignities of that country: the
Thüringen Landgraviate, the Meissen Markgraviate, and the
ancient Duchy and Electorate of Saxony; and to become very
great among the Princes of the German Empire. … Through the
earlier portion of the 15th century, this Saxon House might
fairly reckon itself the greatest in Germany, till Austria,
till Brandenburg gradually rose to overshadow it. Law of
primogeniture could never be accepted in that country; nothing
but divisions, redivisions, coalescings, splittings, and
never-ending readjustments and collisions were prevalent in
consequence; to which cause, first of all, the loss of the
race by Saxony may be ascribed." In 1464, Frederick II. was
succeeded by his two sons, Ernest and Albert. These princes
governed their country conjointly for upwards of 20 years, but
then made a partition from which began the separation of the
Ernestine and Albertine lines that continued ever afterwards
in the House of Saxony. "Ernest, the elder of those two …
boys, became Kurfürst (Elector); and got for inheritance,
besides the 'inalienable properties' which lie round
Wittenberg, … the better or Thuringian side of the Saxon
country—that is, the Weimar, Gotha, Altenburg, &c.
Principalities: —while the other youth, Albert, had to take
the 'Osterland (Easternland), with part of Meissen,' what we
may in general imagine to be (for no German Dryasdust will do
you the kindness to say precisely) the eastern region of what
is Saxony in our day. These Albertines, with an inferior
territory, had, as their main towns, Leipzig and Dresden, a
Residenz-Schloss (or sublime enough Ducal Palace) in each
city, Leipzig as yet the grander and more common one. There,
at Leipzig chiefly, I say, lived the august younger or
Albertine Line. …
{2814}
As for Ernst, the elder, he and his lived chiefly at
Wittenberg, as I perceive; there or in the neighbourhood was
their high Schloss; distinguished among palaces. But they had
Weimar, they had Altenburg, Gotha, Coburg,—above all, they had
the Wartburg, one of the most distinguished Strong Houses any
Duke could live in, if he were of frugal and heroic turn. …
Ernst's son was Frederick the Wise, successor in the Kur
(Electorship) and paternal lands; which, as Frederick did not
marry and there was only one other brother, were not further
divided on this occasion. Frederick the Wise, born in 1463,
was that ever-memorable Kurfürst who saved Luther from the
Diet of Worms in 1521.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1521-1522.

He died in 1525, and was succeeded by his brother, John the
Steadfast. … He also was a wise and eminently Protestant man.
He struggled very faithfully for the good Cause, during his
term of sovereignty; died in 1532 (14 years before Luther),
having held the Electorate only seven years. … His son was
Johann Friedrich, the Magnanimous by epithet (der
Grossmüthige), under whom the Line underwent sad destinies;
lost the Electorship, lost much; and split itself after him
into innumerable branches, who are all of a small type ever
since." In the Albertine Line, Albert's eldest son, "successor
in the eastern properties and residences, was Duke George of
Saxony,—called 'of Saxony,' as all those Dukes, big and
little, were and still are,—Herzog Georg von Sachsen: of whom,
to make him memorable, it is enough to say that he was
Luther's Duke George! Yes, this is he with whom Luther had
such wrangling and jangling. … He was strong for the old
religion, while his cousins went so valiantly ahead for the
new. … George's brother, Henry, succeeded; lived only for two
years; in which time all went to Protestantism in the eastern
parts of Saxony, as in the western. This Henry's eldest son,
and first successor, was Moritz, the 'Maurice' known in
English Protestant books; who, in the Schmalkaldic League and
War, played such a questionable game with his Protestant
cousin, of the elder or Ernestine Line,—quite ousting said
cousin, by superior jockeyship, and reducing his Line and him
to the second rank ever since.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1546-1552.

This cousin was Johann Friedrich the Magnanimous … whom we
left above waiting for that catastrophe. … Duke Moritz got the
Electorship transferred to himself; Electorship, with
Wittenberg and the 'inalienable lands and dignities.' … Moritz
kept his Electorship, and, by cunning jockeying, his
Protestantism too; got his Albertine or junior Line pushed
into the place of the Ernestine or first; in which
dishonourably acquired position it continues to this day
[1855]; performing ever since the chief part in Saxony, as
Electors, and now as Kings of Saxony. … The Ernestine, or
honourable Protestant line is ever since in a secondary,
diminished, and as it were, disintegrated state, a Line broken
small; nothing now but a series of small Dukes, Weimar, Gotha,
Coburg, and the like, in the Thuringian region, who, on mere
genealogical grounds, put Sachsen to their name:
Sachsen-Coburg, Sachsen-Weimar, &c. [Anglicised, Saxe-Coburg,
etc.]."

_T. Carlyle,
The Prinzenraub
(Essays, volume 6)._

ALSO IN:
_F. Shoberl,
Historical Account of the House of Saxony._

SAXONY: A. D. 1500-1512.
Formation of the Circles of Saxony and Upper Saxony.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1493-1519.

SAXONY: A. D. 1516-1546.
The Reformation.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1516-1517, to 1517-1521,
1521-1522, 1522-1525, 1525-1529, 1530-1531;
also, GERMANY: A. D. 1530-1532, and after.

SAXONY: A. D. 1525.
The Lutheran doctrines and system formally established
in the electorate.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1522-1525.

SAXONY: A. D. 1539.
Succession GERMANY of a Protestant prince.

See: A. D. 1533-1546.

SAXONY: A. D. 1546-1547.
Treachery of Maurice of Saxony.
Transfer of the electorate to him.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1546-1552.

SAXONY: A. D. 1619.
Adhesion of the Elector to the Emperor Ferdinand,
against Frederick of Bohemia and the Evangelical Union.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1618-1620.

SAXONY: A. D. 1631.
Ignoble trepidations of the Elector.
His final alliance with Gustavus Adolphus.
The battle of Breitenfeld.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1631.

SAXONY: A. D. 1631-1632.
The Elector and his army in Bohemia.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1631-1632.

SAXONY: A. D. 1633.
Standing aloof from the Union of Heilbronn.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1632-1634.

SAXONY: A. D. 1634.
Desertion of the Protestant cause.
The Elector's alliance with the Emperor.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1634-1639.

SAXONY: A. D. 1645.
Forced to a treaty of neutrality with the Swedes and French.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1640-1645.

SAXONY: A. D. 1648.
The Peace of Westphalia.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1648.

SAXONY: A. D. 1686.
The League of Augsburg.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1686.

SAXONY: A. D. 1697-1698.
The crown of Poland secured by the Elector.

See POLAND: A. D. 1696-1698.

SAXONY: A. D. 1706.
Invasion by Charles XII. of Sweden.
Renunciation of the Polish crown, by the Elector Augustus.

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1701-1707.

SAXONY: A. D. 1733.
Election of Augustus III. to the Polish throne,
enforced by Russia and Austria.

See POLAND: A. D. 1732-1733.

SAXONY: A. D. 1740.
The War of the Austrian Succession:
Claims of the Elector upon Austrian territory.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1740 (OCTOBER).

SAXONY: A. D. 1741.
The War of the Austrian Succession:
Alliance against Austria.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1741 (AUGUST-NOVEMBER).

SAXONY: A. D. 1745.
The War of the Austrian Succession: Alliance with Austria.
Subjugation by Prussia.
The Peace of Dresden.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1744-1745.

SAXONY: A. D. 1755.
Intrigues with Austria and Russia against Prussia.
Causes of the Seven Years War.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1755-1756.

SAXONY: A. D. 1756.
Swift subjugation by Frederick of Prussia.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1756.

SAXONY: A. D. 1759-1760.
Occupied by the Austrians.
Mostly recovered by Frederick.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1759 (JULY-NOVEMBER); and 1760.

SAXONY: A. D. 1763.
The end and results of the Seven Years War.
The electorate restored.

See SEVEN YEARS WAR: THE TREATIES.

{2815}

SAXONY: A. D. 1806.

The Elector, deserting Prussia, becomes the subject-ally of
Napoleon, and is made a king.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1806 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).

SAXONY: A. D. 1807.
Acquisition by the king of the grand duchy of Warsaw.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1807 (JUNE-JULY).

SAXONY: A. D. 1809.
Risings against the French.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (APRIL-JULY).

SAXONY: A. D. 1813.
Occupied by the Allies.
Regained by the French.
Humiliating submission of the king to Napoleon.
French victory at Dresden and defeat at Leipsic.
Desertion from Napoleon's army by the Saxons.
The king a prisoner in the hands of the Allies.
French surrender of Dresden.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1812-1813,
to 1813 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).

SAXONY: A. D. 1814-1815.
The Saxon question in the Congress of Vienna.
The king restored, with half of his dominions lost.

See VIENNA, THE CONGRESS OF.

SAXONY: A. D. 1817.
Accession to the Holy Alliance.

See HOLY ALLIANCE.

SAXONY: A. D. 1848 (March).
Revolutionary outbreak.
Concessions to the people.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1848 (MARCH).

SAXONY: A. D. 1849.
Insurrection suppressed by Prussian troops.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1848-1850.

SAXONY: A. D. 1866.
The Seven Weeks War.
Indemnity to Prussia.
Union with the North German Confederation.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1866.

SAXONY: A. D. 1870-1871.
Embraced in the new German Empire.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1870 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER);
1871 (JANUARY); and 1871 (APRIL).

----------SAXONY: End--------

SAXONY, The English titular Dukedom of.

See WALES, PRINCE OF.

SCALDIS, The.
The ancient name of the river Scheldt.

SCALDS, OR SKALDS, The.

"Before the introduction or general diffusion of writing, it
is evident that a class of men whose sole occupation was to
commit to memory and preserve the laws, usages, precedents,
and details of all those civil affairs and rights, and to
whose fidelity in relating former transactions implicit
confidence could be given, must of necessity have existed in
society—must have been in every locality. … This class [among
the Scandinavian peoples of the North of Europe] were the
Scalds—the men who were the living books, to be referred to in
every case of law or property in which the past had to be
applied to the present. Before the introduction of
Christianity, and with Christianity the use of written
documents, and the diffusion, by the church establishment, of
writing in every locality, the scald must have been among the
pagan landowners what the parish priest and his written record
were in the older Christianised countries of Europe. … The
scalds in these Christianised countries were merely a class of
wandering troubadours, poets, story-tellers, minnesingers. …
The scalds of the north disappeared at once when Christian
priests were established through the country. They were
superseded in their utility by men of education, who knew the
art of writing; and the country had no feudal barons to
maintain such a class for amusement only. We hear little of
the scalds after the first half of the 12th century."

_S. Laing,
The Heimskringla: Preliminary Dissertation,
chapter 1._

"At the dawn of historical times we find the skalds practising
their art everywhere in the North. … The oldest Norwegian
skalds, like 'Starkad' and 'Brage the Old,' are enveloped in
mythic darkness, but already, in the time of Harald Fairhair
(872-930), the song-smiths of the Scandinavian North appear as
thoroughly historical personages. In Iceland the art of poetry
was held in high honor, and it was cultivated not only by the
professional skalds, but also by others when the occasion
presented itself. … When the Icelander had arrived at the age
of maturity, he longed to travel in foreign lands. As a skald
he would then visit foreign kings and other noblemen, where he
would receive a most hearty welcome. … These Icelandic skalds
became a very significant factor in the literary development
of the North during the greater part of the middle ages."

_F. W. Horn,
History of the Literature of the Scandinavian North,
part 1, chapter 1._

SCALIGERI, The, or Della Scala Family.

See VERONA: A. D. 1260-1338;
also, MILAN: A. D. 1277-1447.

SCAMANDER, The.

See TROJA.

SCANDERBEG'S WAR WITH THE TURKS.

See ALBANIANS: A. D. 1443-1467.

----------SCANDINAVIAN STATES: Start--------

SCANDINAVIAN STATES:
Early history.

"Those who lean implicitly on the chief props supplied by the
Old Norse literature for the early history and genealogy of
the North lean on very unsafe supports. The fact is, we must
treat these genealogies and these continuous histories as
compilations made up from isolated and detached
traditions—epics in which some individual or some battle was
described, and in which the links and the connections between
the pieces have been supplied according to the ingenuity of
the compilers; in which the arrangement and chronology are to
a large extent arbitrary; and in which it has been a great
temptation to transfer the deeds of one hero to another of the
same name. Under these circumstances what is a modern
historian to do? In the first place he must take the
contemporary chronicles—Frank, English, and Irish—as his
supreme guides, and not allow their statements to be perverted
by the false or delusive testimony of the sagas, and where the
two are at issue, sacrifice the latter without scruple, while
in those cases where we have no contemporary and independent
evidence then to construct as best we can our story from the
glimmers of light that have reached us."

_H. H. Howorth,
Early History of Sweden
(Royal Historical Society, Transactions, volume 9)._

{2816}

SCANDINAVIAN STATES:
Their relationships in language and blood.

"Scandinavia is not a very convenient word. Norway and Sweden
it suits; because, in Norway and Sweden, the geographical
boundaries coincide with the phenomena of language and blood.
But Denmark is not only divided from them by water, but is in
actual contact with Germany. More than this, it is connected
with the Empire: Holstein being German and Imperial, Sleswick
partly German though not Imperial. … Generically, a
Scandinavian is a German. Of the great German stock there are
two divisions—the Scandinavian or Norse, and the Teutonic or
German Proper. Of the Germans Proper, the nearest congeners to
the Scandinavians are the Frisians; and, after them, the
Saxons. … At present the languages of Sweden and Denmark,
though mutually intelligible, are treated as distinct: the
real differences being exaggerated by differences of
orthography, and by the use on the part of the Swedes of the
ordinary Italian alphabet, whilst the Danes prefer the old
German black-letter. The literary Norwegian is Danish rather
than Swedish. Meanwhile, the old language, the mother-tongue,
is the common property of all, and so is the old literature
with its Edda and Sagas; though … the Norwegians are the chief
heroes of it. The language in which it is embodied is
preserved with but little alteration in Iceland; so that it
may fairly be called Icelandic, though the Norwegians
denominate it Old Norse. …

See NORMANS—NORTHMEN. A. D. 960-1100.

The histories of the three countries are alike in their
general character though different in detail. Denmark when we
have got away from the heroic age into the dawn of the true
historical period, is definitely separated from Germany in the
parts about the Eyder—perhaps by the river itself. It is Pagan
and Anti-Imperial; the Danes being, in the eyes of the
Carlovingians, little better than the hated Saxons. Nor is it
ever an integral part of the Empire; though Danish and German
alliances are common. They end in Holstein being Danish, and
in its encroaching on Sleswick and largely influencing the
kingdom in general. As being most in contact with the
civilization of the South, Denmark encroaches on Sweden, and,
for a long time, holds Skaane and other Swedish districts.
Indeed, it is always a check upon the ambition of its northern
neighbour. Before, then, that Sweden becomes one and
indivisible, the Danes have to be ejected from its southern
provinces. Norway, too, when dynastic alliances begin and when
kingdoms become consolidated, is united with Denmark. … In
the way of language the Scandinavians are Germans—the term
being taken in its wider and more general sense. Whether the
blood coincide with the language is another question; nor is
it an easy one. The one point upon which most ethnologists
agree, is the doctrine that, in Norway and Sweden (at least),
or in the parts north of the Baltic, the Germans are by no
means aboriginal; the real aborigines having been congeners of
either the Laps or the Fins; who, at a time anterior to the
German immigrations, covered the whole land from the North
Cape to the Naze in Norway, and from Tornea to Ystadt in
Sweden. Towards these aborigines the newer occupants comported
themselves much as the Angles of England comported themselves
towards the Britons. At the same time, in both Britain and
Scandinavia the extent to which the two populations
intermarried or kept separate is doubtful. It may be added
that, in both countries, there are extreme opinions on each
side of the question."

_R. G. Latham,
The Nationalities of Europe,
volume 2, chapter 37._

See, also,
GOTHS, ORIGIN OF THE.

ALSO IN:
_A. Lefèvre,
Race and Language,
page 236._

SCANDINAVIAN STATES: 8-9th Centuries.
Explorations, ravages and conquests of the Vikings.

See NORMANS.—NORTHMEN.

SCANDINAVIAN STATES: 8-11th Centuries.
Formation of the Three Kingdoms.

"At the end of the 8th century, … within the two Scandinavian
peninsulas, the three Scandinavian nations were fast forming.
A number of kindred tribes were settling down into the
kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, which, sometimes
separate, sometimes united, have existed ever since. Of these
three, Denmark, the only one which had a frontier towards the
Empire, was naturally the first to play a part in general
European history. In the course of the 10th century, under the
half-mythical Gorm, and his successors Harold and Sven, the
Danish kingdom itself, as distinguished from other lands held
in aftertimes by its kings, reached nearly its full historical
extent in the two peninsulas and the islands between them.
Halland and Skane or Scania, it must always be remembered, are
from the beginning at least as Danish as Zealand and Jutland.
The Eider remained the frontier towards the Empire, save
during part of the 10th and 11th centuries, when the Danish
frontier withdrew to the Dannewerk, and the laud between the
two boundaries formed the Danish March of the Empire. Under
Cnut the old frontier was restored. The name of Northmen,
which the Franks used in a laxer way for the Scandinavian
nations generally, was confined to the people of Norway. These
were formed into a single kingdom under Harold Harfraga late
in the 9th century. The Norwegian realm of that day stretched
far beyond the bounds of the later Norway, having an
indefinite extension over tributary Finnish tribes as far as
the White Sea. The central part of the eastern side of the
northern peninsula, between Denmark to the south and the
Finnish nations to the north, was held by two Scandinavian
settlements which grew into the Swedish kingdom. These were
those of the Swedes strictly so called, and of the Geatas or
Gauts. This last name has naturally been confounded with that
of the Goths, and has given the title of 'King of the Goths'
to the princes of Sweden. Gothland, east and west, lay on each
side of Lake Wettern. Swithiod or Svealand, Sweden proper, lay
on both sides of the great arm of the sea whose entrance is
guarded by the modern capital. The union of Svealand and
Gothland made up the kingdom of Sweden. Its early boundaries
towards both Denmark and Norway were fluctuating. Wermeland,
immediately to the north of Lake Wenern, and Jamteland farther
to the north, were long a debatable land. At the beginning of
the 12th century Wermeland passed finally to Sweden, and
Jamteland for several ages to Norway. Bleking again, at the
southeast corner of the Peninsula, was a debatable land
between Sweden and Denmark which passed to Denmark. For a land
thus bounded the natural course of extension by land lay to
the north, along the west coast of the Gulf of Bothnia. In the
course of the 11th century at the latest, Sweden began to
spread itself in that direction over Helsingland. Sweden had
thus a better opportunity than Denmark and Norway for
extension of her own borders by land. Meanwhile Denmark and
Norway, looking to the west, had their great time of Oceanic
conquest and colonization in the 9th and 10th centuries."

_E. A. Freeman,
Historical Geography of Europe,
chapter 11, section 1._

{2817}

"Till about the year of Grace 860 there were no kings in
Norway, nothing but numerous jarls,—essentially kinglets,—each
presiding over a kind of republican or parliamentary little
territory; generally striving each to be on some terms of
human neighbourhood with those about him, but, in spite of
'Fylke Things' (Folk Things)—little parish parliaments —and
small combinations of these, which had gradually formed
themselves, often reduced to the unhappy state of quarrel with
them. Harald Haarfagr was the first to put an end to this
state of things, and become memorable and profitable to his
country by uniting it under one head and making a kingdom of
it; which it has continued to be ever since. His father,
Halfdan the Black, had already begun this rough but salutary
process, … but it was Harald the Fairhaired, his son, who
conspicuously carried it on and completed it. Harald's
birth-year, death-year, and chronology in general, are known
only by inference and computation; but, by the latest
reckoning, he died about the year 933 of our era, a man of 83.
The business of conquest lasted Harald about twelve years (A.
D. 860-872?), in which he subdued also the Vikings of the
out-islands, Orkneys, Shetlands, Hebrides, and Man. Sixty more
years were given him to consolidate and regulate what he had
conquered, which he did with great judgment, industry, and
success. His reign altogether is counted to have been of over
70 years. … These were the times of Norse colonization; proud
Norsemen flying into other lands, to freer scenes,—to Iceland,
to the Faroe Islands, which were hitherto quite vacant
(tenanted only by some mournful hermit, Irish Christian fakir,
or so); still more copiously to the Orkney and Shetland Isles,
the Hebrides and other countries where Norse squatters and
settlers already were. Settlement of Iceland, we say,
settlement of the Faroe Islands, and, by far the notablest of
all, settlement of Normandy by Rolf the Ganger (A. D. 876?)."

_T. Carlyle,
The Early Kings of Norway,
chapter 1._

SCANDINAVIAN STATES: 9th Century.
Introduction of Christianity.

See CHRISTIANITY: 9-11TH CENTURIES.

SCANDINAVIAN STATES: A. D. 1018-1397.
The empire of Canute and its dissolution.
Disturbed state of the Three Kingdoms.
The Folkungas in Sweden.
Rise of Denmark.
The reign of Queen Margaret and the Union of Calmar.

"A Northern Empire … for a time seemed possible when Canute
the Great arose. King by inheritance of England and of
Denmark, he was able by successful war to add almost the whole
of Norway to his dominions.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 979-1016, and 1016-1042