Chapter IV: Concerning the infallible teaching of the Roman (6)

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1558-1560.

PERTH: A. D. 1715.
Headquarters of the Jacobite Rebellion.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1715.

----------PERTH: End--------

PERTH, The Five Articles of.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1618.

PERTINAX, Roman Emperor, A. D. 193.

----------PERU: Start--------

PERU:
Origin of the name.

"There was a chief in the territory to the south of the Gulf
of San Miguel, on the Pacific coast" named Biru, and this
country was visited by Gaspar de Morales and Francisco Pizarro
in 1515. For the next ten years Biru was the most southern
land known to the Spaniards; and the consequence was that the
unknown regions farther south, including the rumored empire
abounding in gold, came to be designated as Biru, or Peru. It
was thus that the land of the Yncas got the name of Peru from
the Spaniards, some years before it was actually discovered."

_C. H. Markham,
Narrative and Critical History of America,
volume 2, chapter 8._

ALSO IN:
_A. Helps,
Spanish Conquest in America,
book 6, chapter 2._

PERU:
The aboriginal inhabitants and their civilization.
The extraordinary paternal despotism of the Incas.

"The bulk of the population [of Peru] is composed of the
aboriginal Indians, the natives who had been there from time
immemorial when America was discovered. The central tribe of
these Indians was that of the Yncas, inhabiting the region in
the Sierra which has already been described as the Cuzco
section. Such a country was well adapted for the cradle of an
imperial tribe. … The Ynca race was originally divided into
six tribes, whose lands are indicated by the rivers which
formed their limits. Of these tribes the Yncas themselves had
their original seat between the rivers Apurimac and
Paucartampu, with the lovely valley of the Vilcamayu bisecting
it. The Canas dwelt in the upper part of that valley up to the
Vilcañota Pass, and on the mountains on either side. The
Quichuas were in the valleys round the head waters of the
Apurimac and Abancay. The Chancas extended from the
neighbourhood of Ayacucho (Guamanga) to the Apurimac. The
Huancas occupied the valley of the Xauxa up to the saddle of
the Cerro Pasco, and the Rucanas were in the mountainous
region between the central and western cordilleras. These six
tribes eventually formed the conquering Ynca race. Their
language was introduced into every conquered province, and was
carefully taught to the people, so that the Spaniards
correctly called it the 'Lengua General' of Peru. This
language was called Quichua, after the tribe inhabiting the
upper part of the valleys of the Pachachaca and Apurimac.
Their territory consisted chiefly of uplands covered with long
grass, and the name has been derived from the abundance of
straw in this region. 'Quehuani' is to twist; 'quehuasca' is
the participle; and 'ychu' is straw. Together,
'Quehuasca-Ychu,' or twisted straw, abbreviated into Quichua.
The name was given to the language by Friar San Tomas in his
grammar published in 1500, who perhaps first collected words
among the Quichuas and so gave it their name, which was
adopted by all subsequent grammarians. But the proper name
would have been the Ynca language. The aboriginal people in
the basin of Lake Titicaca were called Collas, and they spoke
a language which is closely allied to the Quichua. … The
Collas were conquered by the Yncas in very remote times, and
their language, now incorrectly called Aymara, received many
Quichua additions; for it originally contained few words to
express abstract ideas, and none for many things which are
indispensable in the first beginnings of civilized life. One
branch of the Collas (now called Aymaras) was a savage tribe
inhabiting the shores and islands of Lake Titicaca, called
Urus. … The Ynca and Colla (Aymara) tribes eventually combined
to form the great armies which spread the rule of Ynca
sovereigns over a much larger extent of country. … In the
happy days of the Yncas they cultivated many of the arts, and
had some practical knowledge of astronomy. They had
domesticated all the animals in their country capable of
domestication, understood mining and the working of metals,
excelled as masons, weavers, dyers, and potters, and were good
farmers. They brought the science of administration to a high
pitch of perfection, and composed imaginative songs and dramas
of considerable merit. … The coast of Peru was inhabited by a
people entirely different from the Indians of the Sierra.
There are some slight indications of the aborigines having
been a diminutive race of fishermen who were driven out by the
more civilized people, called Yuncas. … The Yncas conquered
the coast valleys about a century before the discovery of
America, and the Spaniards completed the destruction of the
Yunca people."

_C. R. Markham,
Peru,
chapter 3._

{2519}

"In the minuter mechanical arts, both [the Aztecs of Mexico
and the Incas of Peru] showed considerable skill; but in the
construction of important public works, of roads, aqueducts,
canals, and in agriculture in all its details, the Peruvians
were much superior. Strange that they should have fallen so
far below their rivals in their efforts after a higher
intellectual culture, in astronomical science, more
especially, and in the art of communicating thought by visible
symbols. … We shall look in vain in the history of the East
for a parallel to the absolute control exercised by the Incas
over their subjects. … It was a theocracy more potent in its
operation than that of the Jews; for, though the sanction of
the law might be as great among the latter, the law was
expounded by a human lawgiver, the servant and representative
of Divinity. But the Inca was both the lawgiver and the law.
He was not merely the representative of Divinity, or, like the
Pope, its vicegerent, but he was Divinity itself. The
violation of his ordinance was sacrilege. Never was there a
scheme of government enforced by such terrible sanctions, or
which bore so oppressively on the subjects of it. For it
reached not only to the visible acts, but to the private
conduct, the words, the very thoughts of its vassals. … Under
this extraordinary polity, a people advanced in many of the
social refinements, well skilled in manufactures and
agriculture, were unacquainted … with money. They had nothing
that deserved to be called property. They could follow no
craft, could engage in no labor, no amusement, but such as was
specially provided by law. They could not change their
residence or their dress without a license from the
government. They could not even exercise the freedom which is
conceded to the most abject in other countries, that of
selecting their own wives. The imperative spirit of despotism
would not allow them to be happy or miserable in any way but
that established by law. The power of free agency—the
inestimable and inborn right of every human being—was
annihilated in Peru."

_W. H. Prescott,
History of the Conquest of Peru,
book 1, chapter 5 (volume 1)._

ALSO IN:
_The Standard Natural History
(J. S. Kingsley, edition.),
volume 6, pages 215-226._

_J. Fiske,
The Discovery of America,
chapter 9 (volume 2)._

_E. J. Payne,
History of the New World called America,
book 2 (volume 1)._

See, also,
AMERICAN ABORIGINES, ANDESIANS.

PERU:
The empire of the Incas.

"The Inca empire had attained its greatest extension and power
precisely at the period of the discovery by Columbus, under
the reign of Huayna Capac, who, rather than Huascar or
Atahualpa, should be called the last of the Incas. His father,
the Inca Tupac Yupanqui, had pushed his conquests on the
south, beyond the great desert of Atacama, to the river Maule
in Chili; while, at the same time, Huayna Capac himself had
reduced the powerful and refined kingdom of the Sciris of
Quito [see ECUADOR], on the north. From their great dominating
central plateau, the Incas had pressed down to the Pacific, on
the one hand, and to the dense forests of the Amazonian
valleys on the other. Throughout this wide region and over all
its nations, principalities, and tribes, Huayna Capac at the
beginning of the 16th century ruled supreme. His empire
extended from four degrees above the equator to the 34th
southern parallel of latitude, a distance of not far from
3,000 miles; while from east to west it spread, with varying
width, from the Pacific to the valleys of Paucartambo and
Chuquisaca, an average distance of not far from 400 miles,
covering an area, therefore, of more than one million square
miles, equal to about one-third of the total area of the
United States, or to the whole of the United States to the
eastward of the Mississippi river. … In the islands of Lake
Titicaca, if tradition be our guide, were developed the germs
of Inca civilization. Thence, it is said, went the founders of
the Inca dynasty, past the high divide between the waters
flowing into the lake and those falling into the Amazon, and
skirting the valley of the river Vilcanota for more than 200
miles, they established their seat in the bolson [valley] of
Cuzco. … It is not only central in position, salubrious and
productive, but the barriers which separate it from the
neighboring valleys are relatively low, with passes which may
be traversed with comparative ease; while they are, at the
same time, readily defensible. The rule of the first Inca
seems not to have extended beyond this valley, and the passes
leading into it are strongly fortified, showing the direction
whence hostilities were anticipated in the early days of the
empire, before the chiefs of Cuzco began their career of
conquest and aggregation, reducing the people of the bolson of
Anta in the north, and that of Urcos in the south. … The
survey of the monuments of Peru brings the conviction that the
ancient population was not nearly so numerous as the accounts
of the chroniclers would lead us to suppose. From what I have
said, it will be clear that but a small portion of the country
is inhabitable, or capable of supporting a considerable number
of people. The rich and productive valleys and bolsones are
hardly more than specks on the map; and although there is
every evidence that their capacities of production were taxed
to the very utmost, still their capacities were limited. The
ancient inhabitants built their dwellings among rough rocks,
on arid slopes of hills, and walled up their dead in eaves and
clefts, or buried them among irreclaimable sands, in order to
utilize the scanty cultivable soil for agriculture. They
excavated great areas in the deserts until they reached
moisture enough to support vegetation, and then brought guano
from the islands to fertilize these sunken gardens. They
terraced up every hill and mountain–side, and gathered the
soil from the crevices of the rocks to fill the narrow
platforms, until not a foot of surface, on which could grow a
single stalk of maize or a single handful of quinoa, was left
unimproved. China, perhaps Japan and some portions of India,
may afford a parallel to the extreme utilization of the soil
which was effected in Peru at the time of the Inca Empire. No
doubt the Indian population lived, as it still lives, on the
scantiest fare, on the very minimum of food; but it had not
then, as now, the ox, the hog, the goat, and the sheep, nor
yet many of the grains and fruits which contribute most to the
support of dense populations. … The present population of the
three states which were wholly or in part included in the Inca
Empire—namely, Equador, Peru and Bolivia—does not exceed five
millions. I think it would be safe to estimate the population
under the Inca rule at about double that number, or perhaps
somewhere between ten and twelve millions; notwithstanding Las
Casas, the good, but not very accurate, Bishop of Chiapa tells
us that, 'in the Province of Peru alone the Spaniards killed
above forty millions of people.'"

_E. G. Squier,
Peru,
chapter 1._

PERU:A. D. 1527-1528.
Discovery by the Spaniards.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1524-1528.

{2520}

PERU: A. D. 1528-1531.
The commission and the preparations of Pizarro.

"In the spring of 1528, Pizarro and one of his comrades,
taking with them some natives of Peru and some products of
that country, set out [from Panama] to tell their tale at the
court of Castile. Pizarro … found the Emperor Charles V. at
Toledo, and met with a gracious reception. … His tales of the
wealth which he had witnessed were the more readily believed
in consequence of the experiences of another Spaniard whom he
now met at court, the famous conqueror of Mexico. Yet affairs
in Spain progressed with proverbial slowness, and it was not
until the expiry of a year from the date of his arrival in the
country that the capitulation was signed defining the powers
of Pizarro. By this agreement he was granted the right of
discovery and conquest in Peru, or New Castile, with the
titles of Captain-general of the province and Adelantado, or
lieutenant-governor. He was likewise to enjoy a considerable
salary, and to have the right to erect certain fortresses
under his government, and, in short, to exercise the
prerogatives of a viceroy. Almagro was merely appointed
commander of the fortress of Tumbez, with the rank of Hidalgo;
whilst Father Luque became bishop of the same place. …
Pizarro, on his part, was bound to raise within six months a
force of 250 men; whilst the government on theirs engaged to
furnish some assistance in the purchase of artillery and
stores." Thus commissioned, Pizarro left Seville in January,
1530, hastening back to Panama, accompanied or followed by
four half-brothers, who were destined to stormy careers in
Peru. Naturally, his comrade and partner Almagro was ill
pleased with the provision made for him, and the partnership
came near to wreck; but some sort of reconciliation was
brought about, and the two adventurers joined hands again in
preparations for a second visit to Peru, with intentions
boding evil to the unhappy natives of that too bountiful land.
It was early in January 1531 that Pizarro sailed southward
from the Isthmus for the third and last time.

_R. G. Watson,
Spanish and Portuguese South America,
volume 1, chapters 6-7._

PERU:A. D. 1531-1533.
Pizarro's conquest.
Treacherous murder of Atahualpa.

"Pizarro sailed from Panama on the 28th of December, 1531,
with three small vessels carrying one hundred and eighty-three
men and thirty-seven horses. In thirteen days he arrived at
the bay of San Mateo, where he landed the horses and soldiers
to march along the shore, sending back the ships to get more
men and horses at Panama and Nicaragua. They returned with
twenty-six horses and thirty more men. With this force Pizarro
continued his march along the sea-coast, which was well
peopled; and on arriving at the bay of Guayaquil, he crossed
over in the ships to the island of Puna. Here a devastating
war was waged with the unfortunate natives, and from Puna the
conqueror proceeded again in his ships to the Peruvian town of
Tumbez. The country was in a state of confusion, owing to a
long and desolating war of succession between Huascar and
Atahualpa, the two sons of the great Ynca Huayna Capac, and
was thus an easy prey to the invaders. Huascar had been
defeated and made prisoner by the generals of his brother, and
Atahualpa was on his way from Quito to Cusco, the capital of
the empire, to enjoy the fruits of his victory. He was
reported to be at Caxamarca, on the eastern side of the
mountain; and Pizarro, with his small force, set out from
Tumbez on the 18th of May, 1532. … The first part of Pizarro's
march was southward from Tumbez, in the rainless coast region.
After crossing a vast desert he came to Tungarara, in the
fertile valleys of the Chira, where he founded the city of San
Miguel, the site of which was afterwards removed to the valley
of Piura. The accountant Antonio Navarro and the royal
treasurer Riquelme were left in command at San Miguel, and
Pizarro resumed his march in search of the Ynca Atahualpa on
the 24th of September, 1532. He detached the gallant cavalier,
Hernando de Soto, into the sierra of Huancabamba, to
reconnoitre, and pacify the country. De Soto rejoined the main
body after an absence of about ten days. The brother of
Atahualpa, named Titu Atauchi, arrived as an envoy, with
presents, and a message to the effect that the Ynca desired
friendship with the strangers. Crossing the vast desert of
Sechura, Pizarro reached the fertile valley of Motupe, and
marched thence to the foot of the cordilleras in the valley of
the Jequetepeque. Here he rested for a day or two, to arrange
the order for the ascent. He took with him forty horses and
sixty foot, instructing Hernando de Soto to follow him with
the main body and the baggage. News arrived that the Ynca
Atahualpa had reached the neighborhood of Caxamarca about
three days before, and that he desired peace. Pizarro pressed
forward, crossed the cordillera, and on Friday, the 15th of
November, 1532, he entered Caxamarca with his whole force.
Here he found excellent accommodation in the large masonry
buildings, and was well satisfied with the strategic position.
Atahualpa was established in a large camp outside, where
Hernando de Soto had an interview with him. Atahualpa
announced his intention of visiting the Christian commander,
and Pizarro arranged and perpetrated a black act of treachery.
He kept all his men under arms. The Ynca, suspecting nothing,
came into the great square of Cusco in grand regal procession.
He was suddenly attacked and made prisoner, and his people
were massacred. The Ynca offered a ransom, which he described
as gold enough to fill a room twenty-two feet long and
seventeen wide, to a height equal to a man's stature and a
half. He undertook to do this in two months, and sent orders
for the collection of golden vases and ornaments in all parts
of the empire. Soon the treasure began to arrive, while
Atahualpa was deceived by false promises, and he beguiled his
captivity by acquiring Spanish and learning to play at chess
and cards. Meanwhile Pizarro sent an expedition under his
brother Hernando, to visit the famous temple of Pachacamac on
the coast; and three soldiers were also despatched to Cusco,
the capital of the empire, to hurry forward the treasure. They
set out in February, 1533, but behaved with so much imprudence
and insolence at Cusco as to endanger their own lives and the
success of their mission. Pizarro therefore ordered two
officers of distinction, Hernando de Soto and Pedro del Barco,
to follow them and remedy the mischief which they were doing.
On Easter eve, being the 14th of April, 1533, Almagro arrived
at Caxamarca with a reinforcement of 150 Spaniards and 84
horses.
{2521}
On the 3rd of May it was ordered that the gold already arrived
should be melted down for distribution; but another large
instalment came on the 14th of June. An immense quantity
consisted of slabs, with holes at the corners, which had been
torn off the walls of temples and palaces; and there were
vessels and ornaments of all shapes and sizes. After the royal
fifth had been deducted, the rest was divided among the
conquerors. The total sum of 4,605,670 ducats would be equal
to about £3,500,000 of modern money. After the partition of
the treasure, the murder of the Ynca was seriously proposed as
a measure of good policy. The crime was committed by order of
Pizarro, and with the concurrence of Almagro and the friar
Valverde. It was expected that the sovereign's death would be
followed by the dispersion of his army, and the submission of
the people. This judicial murder was committed in the square
of Caxamarca on the 29th of August, 1533. Hernando de Soto was
absent at the time, and on his return he expressed the warmest
indignation. Several other honorable cavaliers protested
against the execution. Their names are even more worthy of
being remembered than those of the heroic sixteen who crossed
the line on the sea-shore at Gallo."

_C. R. Markham,
Pizarro and the Conquest and Settlement of Peru and Chili
(Narrative and Critical History of America,
volume 2, chapter 8)._

ALSO IN:
_W. H. Prescott,
History of the Conquest of Peru,
book 3, chapters 1-8 (volume 1)._

_J. Fiske,
The Discovery of America,
chapter 10 (volume 2)._

PERU: A. D. 1533-1548.
The fighting of the Spanish conquerors over the spoils.

"The feud between the Pizarros and the Almagros, which forms
the next great series of events in American history, is one of
the most memorable quarrels in the world. … This dire contest
in America destroyed almost every person of any note who came
within its influence, desolated the country where it
originated, prevented the growth of colonization, and changed
for the worse the whole course of legislation for the Spanish
colonies. Its effects were distinctly visible for a century
afterward. … There were no signs, however, of the depth and
fatality of this feud between the Pizarros and Almagros at the
period immediately succeeding the execution of Atahuallpa.
That act of injustice having been perpetrated, Pizarro gave
the royal borla [a peculiar head-dress worn by the reigning
Incas, described as a tassel of fine crimson wool] to a
brother of the late Inca [who died two months later, of shame
and rage at his helpless position], and set out from
Cassamarca on his way to Cusco. It was now time to extend his
conquests and to make himself master of the chief city in
Peru." After a slight resistance, the Spaniards entered "the
great and holy city of Cusco," the capital of the Incas, on
the 15th of November, 1533. According to the Spanish
descriptions it was a remarkable city, constructed with great
regularity, having paved streets, with a stone conduit of
water running through the middle of each, with grand squares
and many splendid palaces and temples. "In Cusco and its
environs, including the whole valley which could be seen from
the top of the tower, it is said that there were 'a hundred
thousand' houses. Among these were shops, and store–houses,
and places for the reception of tribute. … The great Temple of
the Sun had, before the Spaniards rifled Cusco, been a
building of singular gorgeousness. The interior was plated
with gold; and on each side of the central image of the Sun
were ranged, the embalmed bodies of the Incas, sitting upon
their golden thrones raised upon pedestals of gold. All round
the outside of the building, at the top of the walls, ran a
coronal of gold about three feet in depth." For three years
the Spaniards held undisturbed possession of Cusco, reducing
it to the forms of a Spanish municipality, converting the
great Temple of the Sun into a Dominican monastery and turning
many palaces into cathedrals and churches. In the meantime,
Fernando Pizarro, one of the four brothers of the conqueror,
returned from his mission to Spain, whither he had been sent
with full accounts of the conquest and with the king's fifth
of its spoils. He brought back the title of Marquis for
Francisco, and a governor's commission, the province placed
under him to be called New Castile. For Pizarro's associate
and partner, Almagro, there was also a governorship, but it
was one which remained to be conquered. He was authorized to
take possession and govern a province, which should be called
New Toledo, beginning at the southern boundary of Pizarro's
government and extending southward 200 leagues. This was the
beginning of quarrels, which Pizarro's brothers were accused
of embittering by their insolence. Almagro claimed Cusco, as
lying within the limits of his province. Pizarro was engaged
in founding a new capital city near the coast, which he began
to build in 1535, calling it Los Reyes, but which afterwards
received the name of Lima; he would not, however, give up
Cusco. The dispute was adjusted in the end, and Almagro set
out for the conquest of his province (Chile), much of which
had formed part of the dominions of the Inca, and for the
subduing of which he commanded the aid of a large army of
Peruvians, under two chiefs of the royal family. A few months
after this, in the spring of 1536, the nominally reigning
Inca, Manco, escaped from his Spanish masters at Cusco, into
the mountains, and organized a furious and formidable rising,
which brought the Spaniards, both at Cusco and Los Reyes, into
great peril, for many months. Before the revolt had been
overcome, Almagro returned, unsuccessful and disappointed,
from his expedition into Chile, and freshly determined to
assert and enforce his claim to Cusco. It is said that he
endeavored, at first, to make common cause with the Inca
Manco; but his overtures were rejected. He then attacked the
Inca and defeated him; marched rapidly on Cusco, arriving
before the city April 18, 1537; surprised the garrison while
negotiations were going on and gained full possession of the
town. Fernando and Gonzalo, two brothers of the Marquis
Pizarro, were placed in prison. The latter sent a force of 500
men, under his lieutenant, Alvarado, against the intruder; but
Alvarado was encountered on the way and badly beaten. In
November there was a meeting brought about, between Pizarro
and Almagro, in the hope of some compromise, but they parted
from it in sharper enmity than before. Meantime, the younger
Pizarro had escaped from his captivity at Cusco, and Fernando
had been released. In the spring of 1538 Fernando led an army
against the Almagristas, defeated them (April 6, 1538) in a
desperate battle near Cusco and entered the city in triumph.
{2522}
Almagro was taken prisoner, subjected to a formal trial,
condemned and executed. The Pizarros were now completely
masters of the country and maintained their domination for a
few years, extending the Spanish conquests into Chile under
Pedro de Valdivia, and exploring and occupying other regions.
But in 1541, old hatreds and fresh discontents came to a head
in a plot which bore fruit in the assassination of the
governor, the Marquis Pizarro, now past 70 years of age. A
young half-caste son of old Almagro was installed in the
governorship by the conspirators, and when, the next year, a
new royally commissioned governor, Vaca de Castro, arrived
from Spain, young Almagro was mad enough to resist him. His
rebellion was overcome speedily and he suffered death. Vaca de
Castro was superseded in 1544 by a viceroy, Blasco Nuñez Vela,
sent out by the emperor, Charles V., to enforce the "New
Laws," lately framed in Spain, under the influence of Las
Casas, to protect the natives, by a gradual abolition of the
"repartimientos" and "encomiendas." A rebellion occurred, in
which Gonzalo Pizarro took the lead, and the Spanish
government was forced to annul the "New Laws." Pizarro,
however, still refused to submit, and was only overcome after
a civil war of two years, which ended in his defeat and death.
This closed the turbulent career of the Pizarro brothers in
Peru; but the country did not settle into peace until after
some years.

_Sir A. Helps,
The Spanish Conquest in America,
books 17-18 (volume 4)._

ALSO IN:
_W. H. Prescott,
History of the Conquest of Peru._

PERU: A. D. 1539-1541.
Gonzalo Pizarro's expedition to the head waters of the Amazon
and Orellana's voyage down the great river.

See AMAZONS RIVER.

PERU: A. D. 1550-1816.
Under the Spanish Viceroys.

"When the President la Gasca had conquered Gonsalo Pizarro and
returned to Spain, a peaceful viceroy arrived in Peru, sprung
from one of the noblest families of the peninsula. This was
Don Antonio de Mendoza. … Don Antonio died in 1551, after a
very brief enjoyment of his power; but from this date, during
the whole period of the rule of kings of the Austrian House,
the Peruvian Viceroyalty was always filled by members of the
greatest families of Spain. … At an immense distance from the
mother country, and ruling at one time nearly the whole of
South America, including the present republics of Venezuela,
New Granada, Ecuador, Peru, Chile, Bolivia, and La Plata, the
court of the Viceroys was surrounded by regal pomp and
magnificence. … The archbishop of Lima ranked next to the
viceroy, and filled his post during his absence from the
capital. … It was not long after the conquest before the
inquisition, that fearful engine of the despotic power of
Spain, was established in Peru. … The Indians were exempted
from its jurisdiction in theory, but whether, in practice,
this unfortunate and persecuted people always escaped may be
considered as doubtful. It was only in the beginning of the
present century, and shortly before the commencement of the
war of independence, that this fearful tribunal was
abolished." Under the senseless government of Philip II. the
seeds of decay and ruin were planted in every part of the
Spanish empire. "Though receiving from the silver mines of
Peru and Mexico the largest revenue of any sovereign in
Europe, his coffers were always empty, and of $35,000,000
received from America in 1595, not one rial remained in Spain
in 1596. … Then followed the reigns of his worthless
descendants and their profligate ministers; and fast and
heedlessly did they drive this unfortunate country on the high
road to ruin and poverty. On the establishment of the Bourbon
kings of Spain in 1714, a more enlightened policy began to
show itself in the various measures of government; and the
trade to the colonies, which had hitherto been confined by the
strictest monopoly, was slightly opened. At this time, the
commerce of Peru and Mexico was carried on by what was called
the 'flota,' consisting of three men-of-war and about fifteen
merchant-vessels, of from 400 to 1,000 tons. Every kind of
manufactured article of merchandise was embarked on board this
fleet, so that all the trading ports of Europe were interested
in its cargo, and Spain itself sent out little more than wines
and brandy. The flota sailed from Cadiz, and was not allowed
to break bulk on any account during the voyage. Arriving at
Vera Cruz, it took in, for the return voyage, cargoes of
silver, cocoa, indigo, cochineal, tobacco, and sugar; and
sailed to the rendezvous at Havannah, where it awaited the
galleons from Porto Bello, with all the riches of Peru. The
galleons were vessels of about 500 tons; and an immense fair,
which collected merchants from all parts of South America, was
commenced at Porto Bello on their arrival." About the middle
of the 18th century, "a marked change appears to have come
over the colonial policy of Spain; and the enlightened
government of the good Count Florida Blanca, who was prime
minister for 20 years, introduced a few attempts at
administrative reform, not before they were needed, into the
colonial government. The enormous viceroyalty of Peru, long
found to be too large for a single command, was divided; and
viceroys were appointed in La Plata and New Granada, while
another royal audience was established at Quito. The haughty
grandees of Spain also ceased to come out to Peru; and in
their places practical men, who had done good service as
captains-general of Chile, were appointed viceroys, such as
Don Manuel Amat, in 1761, and Don Agustin Jaurequi, in 1780.
At last, Don Ambrosio O'Higgins, whose father was a poor Irish
adventurer, who kept a little retail shop in the square at
Lima, became viceroy of Peru, and was created Marquis of
Osorno. … His son, the famous General O'Higgins, was one of
the liberators of Chile. O'Higgins was followed in the
viceroyalty by the Marquis of Aviles, and in 1806, Don Jose
Abascal, an excellent ruler, assumed the reins of government.
… But the rule of Spain was drawing to a close. The successor
of Abascal, General Pezuela, was the last viceroy who
peacefully succeeded. … Many things had tended to prepare the
minds of the Creole population for revolt. The partial opening
of foreign trade by Florida Blanca; the knowledge of their own
enslaved condition, obtained through the medium of their
increasing intercourse with independent states; and, finally,
the invasion of the mother country by Napoleon's armies,
brought popular excitement in South America to such a height
that it required but a spark to ignite the inflammable
materials."

_C. R. Markham,
Cuzco and Lima,
chapter 9._

{2523}

The natives of Spanish descent had received heroic examples of
revolt from the Inca Peruvians. "In November, 1780, a chief
named Tupac Amaru rose in rebellion. His original object was
to obtain guarantees for the due observance of the laws and
their just administration. But when his moderate demands were
only answered by cruel taunts and brutal menaces, he saw that
independence or death were the only alternatives. He was a
descendant of the ancient sovereigns, and he was proclaimed
Ynca of Peru. A vast army joined him, as if by magic, and the
Spanish dominion was shaken to its foundations. The
insurrection all but succeeded, and a doubtful war was
maintained for two years and a half. It lasted until July,
1783, and the cruelties which followed its suppression were
due to the cowardly terror of panic-stricken tyrants. Tupac
Amaru did not suffer in vain. … From the cruel death of the
Ynca date the feelings which resulted in the independence of
Peru. In 1814, another native chief, named Pumacagua, raised
the cry of independence at Cuzco, and the sons of those who
fell with Tupac Amaru flocked in thousands to his standard.
The patriot army entered Arequipa in triumph, and was joined
by many Spanish Americans, including the enthusiastic young
poet, Melgar. Untrained valor succumbed to discipline, and in
March, 1815, the insurrection was stamped out, but with less
cruelty than disgraced the Spanish name in 1783."

_C. R. Markham,
Peru,
page 150._

PERU: A. D. 1579.
The piracies of Drake.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1572-1580.

PERU: A. D. 1776.
Separation of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres.

See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1580-1777.

PERU: A. D. 1820-1826.
The Struggle for Independence.
Help from Chile and Colombia.
San Martin and Bolivar, the Liberators.
The decisive battle of Ayacucho.

"The great struggle for independence in the Spanish provinces
of South America had been elsewhere, for the most part,
crowned with success before Peru became the theatre for
important action. Here the Spaniards maintained possession of
their last stronghold upon the continent, and, but for
assistance from the neighbouring independent provinces, there
would hardly have appeared a prospect of overthrowing the
viceroyal government. … In the month of August, 1820,
independence having been established in Chili [see CHILE: A.
D. 1810-1818], an army of between 4,000 and 5,000 men was
assembled at Valparaiso for the purpose of breaking up the
royalist strongholds of Peru, and of freeing that province
from the dominion of Spain. The command was held by General
Jose de San Martin, the emancipator of Chili, to whose
exertions the expedition was mainly attributable. Such vessels
of war as could be procured were fitted out and placed under
command of Lord Cochrane. In the month following, the whole
force was landed and quartered at Pisco, on the Peruvian
coast, without opposition from the royalist forces, which
retreated to Lima, about 100 miles northward. An attempt at
negotiation having failed, the army of invasion was again in
motion in the month of October. The naval force anchored off
Callao, where, on the night of November 5th, Lord Cochrane
[afterwards Lord Dundonald], commanding in person, succeeded
in cutting out and capturing the Spanish frigate Esmerelda,
which lay under the protection of the guns of the fort, and in
company with a number of smaller armed vessels. This exploit
is considered as one of the most brilliant achievements of the
kind on record. The main body of the Chilian troops was
transported to Huara, about 75 miles north of the capital. …
As San Martin, after some months' delay at Huara, advanced
upon Lima, the city was thrown into the utmost confusion. The
Spanish authorities found it necessary to evacuate the place.
… The general [San Martin] entered the city on the 12th of
July, 1821, unaccompanied by his army, and experienced little
difficulty in satisfying the terrified inhabitants as to his
good faith and the honesty of his intentions. All went on
prosperously for the cause, and on the 28th the independence
of Peru was formally proclaimed, amid the greatest exhibition
of enthusiasm on the part of the populace. On the 3rd of the
ensuing month San Martin assumed the title of Protector of
Peru. No important military movements took place during a
considerable subsequent period. The fortress at Callao
remained in possession of the royalists" until the 21st of
September, when it capitulated. "The independent army remained
at Lima, for the most part unemployed, during a number of
months subsequent to these events, and their presence began to
be felt as a burden by the inhabitants. In April, 1822, a
severe reverse was felt in the surprise and capture, by
Canterac [the viceroy], of a very considerable body of the
revolutionary forces, at Ica. … An interview took place in the
month of July, of this year [1821], between the Protector and
the great champion of freedom in South America, Bolivar, then
in the full pride of success in the northern provinces. The
result of the meeting was the augmentation of the force at
Lima by 2,000 Columbian troops. During San Martin's absence
the tyranny of his minister, Monteagudo, who made the deputy
protector, the Marquis of Truxillo, a mere tool for the
execution of his private projects, excited an outbreak, which
was only quelled by the arrest and removal of the offending
party. In the succeeding month the first independent congress
was assembled at the capital, and San Martin, having resigned
his authority, soon after took his departure for Chili.
Congress appointed a junta of three persons to discharge the
duties of the executive. Under this administration the affairs
of the new republic fell into great disorder." In June, 1823,
the Spanish viceroy regained possession of Lima, but withdrew
his troops from it again a month later. Nevertheless, "all
hopes of success in the enterprise of the revolution now
seemed to rest upon the arrival of foreign assistance, and
this was fortunately at hand. Simon Bolivar, the liberator of
Venezuela, and the most distinguished of the champions of
freedom in South America, had so far reduced the affairs of
the recently constituted northern states [see COLOMBIAN
STATES: A. D. 1810-1819; and 1819-1830] to order and security,
that he was enabled to turn his attention to the distressed
condition of the Peruvian patriots. He proceeded at once to
the scene of action, and entered Lima on the 1st of September,
1823. … He was received with great rejoicing, and was at once
invested with supreme power, both civil and military. …
{2524}
In February, 1824, an insurrection of the garrison at Callao
resulted in the recapture of this important stronghold by the
Spaniards, and a few weeks later the capital shared the same
fate. The revolutionary congress broke up, after declaring its
own dissolution and the confirmation of Bolivar's authority as
supreme dictator. This gloomy state of affairs only served to
call forth the full energies of the great general. He had
under his command about 10,000 troops, the majority of whom
were Columbians, stationed near Patavilca. The available
forces of the royalists were at this period numerically far
superior to those of the patriots." An action which did not
become general took place on the plains of Junin, but no
decisive engagement occurred until the 9th of December, 1824,
"when the decisive battle of Ayacucho, one of the most
remarkable in its details and important in its results ever
fought in South America, gave a deathblow to Spanish power in
Peru. The attack was commenced by the royalists, under command
of the viceroy. Their numbers very considerably exceeded those
of the patriots, being set down at over 9,000, while those of
the latter fell short of 6,000. … After a single hour's hard
fighting, the assailants were routed and driven back to the
heights of Condorcanqui, where, previous to the battle, they
had taken a position. Their loss was 1,400 in killed and 700
wounded. The patriots lost in killed and wounded a little less
than 1,000." Before the day closed, Canterac, the viceroy,
entered the patriot camp and arranged the terms of a
capitulation with General Sucre—who had commanded in the
battle and won its honors, Bolivar not being present. "His
whole remaining army became prisoners of war, and by the terms
of the capitulation all the Spanish forces in Peru were also
bound to surrender." A strong body of Spanish troops held out,
however, in Upper Peru (afterwards Bolivia) until April, 1825,
and the royalists who had taken refuge at Callao endured with
desperate obstinacy a siege which was protracted until
January, 1826, when most of them had perished of hunger and
disease. "Bolivar was still clothed with the powers of a
dictator in Peru. … He was anxious to bring about the adoption
by the Peruvians of the civil code known as the Bolivian
constitution, but it proved generally unsatisfactory. While he
remained in the country, it is said, 'the people overwhelmed
him with professions of gratitude, and addressed him in
language unsuitable to any being below the Deity.' A reaction
took place notwithstanding, and numbers were found ready to
accuse this truly great man of selfish personal ambition."

_H. Brownell,
North and South America: Peru,
chapters 12-13._

ALSO IN:
_Earl of Dundonald,
Autobiography of a Seaman, Sequel,
chapter 3._

_J. Miller,
Memoirs of General Miller,
chapters 12-27 (volumes 1-2)._

_T. Sutcliffe,
Sixteen Years in Chile and Peru,
chapters 2-3._

PERU: A. D. 1825-1826.
The founding of the Republic of Bolivia in upper Peru.
The Bolivian Constitution.

"Bolivar reassembled the deputies of the Congress of Lower
Peru, February 10, 1825, and in his message to that body
resigned the dictatorship, adding, 'I felicitate Peru on her
being delivered from whatever is most dreadful on earth; from
war by the victory of Ayacucho, and from despotism by my
resignation. Proscribe for ever, I entreat you, this
tremendous authority, which was the sepulchre of Rome.' On the
same occasion he also said; 'My continuance in this republic
is an absurd and monstrous phenomenon; it is the approbrium of
Peru;' with other expressions equally strong; while at the
same time, at the pressing solicitation of the Congress, he
consented, notwithstanding his many declarations of
reluctance, to remain at the head of the republic. Nothing
could exceed the blind submissiveness of this Congress to
Bolivar. After investing him with dictatorial authority for
another year, they voted him a grant of a million of dollars,
which he twice refused, with a disinterestedness that does him
the greatest honor. … Liberality of feeling, and entire
freedom from rapacity of spirit, must be admitted as prominent
traits in his character. After continuing in session about a
month, the Congress came to a resolution, that as they had
granted absolute and unconditional power to Bolivar, in regard
to all subjects, whether legislative or executive, it was
unnecessary, and incompatible with his authority, that they
should continue to exercise their functions; and they
accordingly separated. Bolivar, being left without check or
control in the government, after issuing a decree for
installing a new Congress at Lima the ensuing year, departed
from Lima in April, for the purpose of visiting the interior
provinces of Upper and Lower Peru. … There is reason to
believe, that the flattering reception, with which he was
greeted on this tour, largely contributed to foster those
views of ambition respecting Peru, which he betrayed in the
sequel. Certain it is, at least, that the extravagant
gratitude of the inhabitants of Peru, gave him occasion to
assume the task of a legislator, and thus to bring his
political principles more directly before the world. When the
victory of Ayacucho left the provinces of Upper Peru free to
act, the great question presented to their consideration was,
whether Upper Peru should be united to Lower Peru, or
reannexed to Buenos Ayres, or constitute an independent state.
Under the auspices of the Liberator and of Sucre [Bolivar's
chief of staff], a general assembly was convened at Chuquisaco
in August, 1825, which declared the will of the people to be,
that Upper Peru should become a separate republic, and decreed
that it should be called Bolivia in honor of the Liberator.
Here their functions should properly have ceased, with the
fulfilment of the object for which they met. Regardless,
however, of the limited extent of their powers, they proceeded
to exercise the authority of a general Congress. They
conferred the supreme executive powers on Bolivar, so long as
he should reside within the territory of the republic. Sucre
was made captain-general of the army, with the title of Grand
Marshal of Ayacucho, and his name was bestowed upon the
capital. Medals, statues, and pictures were bountifully and
profusely decreed, in honor of both Sucre and Bolivar. To the
latter was voted a million of dollars, as an acknowledgment of
his preeminent services to the country. With the same
characteristic magnanimity, which he displayed on a like
occasion in Lower Peru, he refused to accept the grant for his
own benefit, but desired that it might be appropriated to
purchasing the emancipation of about a thousand negroes held
in servitude in Bolivia. Finally, they solicited Bolivar to
prepare for the new republic a fundamental code, that should
perpetuate his political principles in the very frame and
constitution of the state.
{2525}
Captivated by the idea of creating a nation, from its very
foundation, Bolivar consented to undertake the task, if,
indeed, which has been confidently asserted to be the case, he
did not himself procure the request to be made. The Liberator
left Chuquisaca in January, 1826, and returned to Lima, to
assist at the installation of the Congress summoned to meet
there in February. He transmitted the form of a constitution
for Bolivia from Lima, accompanied with an address, bearing
date May 25, 1826. Of this extraordinary instrument, we feel
at a loss to decide in what terms to speak. Bolivar has again
and again declared, that it contains his confession of
political faith. He gave all the powers of his mind to its
preparation; he proclaimed it as the well-weighed result of
his anxious meditations. … This constitution proposes a
consolidated or central, not a federal, form of government;
and thus far it is unobjectionable. Every ten citizens are to
name an elector, whose tenure of office is four years. The
Legislative power is to be vested in three branches, called
tribunes, senators, and censors. Tribunes are to be elected
for four years, senators for eight, and censors for life. So
complicated is the arrangement proposed for the enactment of
laws by means of this novel legislature, and so arbitrary and
unnatural the distribution of powers among the several
branches, that it would be impracticable for any people,
having just notions of legislative proceedings, to conduct
public business in the projected mode; and much more
impracticable for men, like the South Americans, not at all
familiar with the business of orderly legislation. But the
most odious feature in the constitution relates to the nature
and appointment of the executive authority. It is placed in
the hands of a president, elected in the first instance by the
legislative body, holding his office for life, without
responsibility for the acts of his administration, and having
the appointment of his successor. The whole patronage of the
state, every appointment of any importance, from the
vice-president and secretaries of state down to the officers
of the revenue, belongs to him; in him is placed the absolute
control of all the military force of the nation, it being at
the same time specially provided, that a permanent armed force
shall be constantly maintained. For the mighty power, the
irresistible influence, which this plan imparts to the
executive, the only corresponding security, assured to the
people, is the inviolability of persons and property. The
constituent Congress of Bolivia assembled at Chuquisaca, May
25, 1826, and passively adopted the proposed constitution to
the letter, as if it had been a charter granted by a sovereign
prince to his subjects, instead of a plan of government
submitted to a deliberative assembly for their consideration.
It took effect accordingly, as the constitution of Bolivia,
and was sworn to by the people; and General Sucre was elected
president for life under it, although one of its provisions
expressly required, that the president should be a native of
Bolivia."

_C. Cushing,
Bolivar and the Bolivian Constitution
(N. A. Rev., January 1830)._

PERU: A. D. 1826-1876.
Retirement of Bolivar.
Attempted confederation with Bolivia and war with Chile.
The succession of military presidents.
Abolition of Slavery.
War with Spain.

"As Bolivar … was again prevailed upon [1826] by the Peruvians
to accept the dictatorship of the northern republic, and was
at the same time President of the United States of Colombia,
he was by far the most powerful man on the continent of
America. For a time it was supposed that the balance of power
on the southern continent was falling into Colombian hands. …
But the power of Bolivar, even in his own country, rested on a
tottering basis. Much more was this the case in the greater
Vice-royalty. The Peruvian generals, who ruled the opinion of
the country, were incurably jealous of him and his army, and
got rid of the latter as soon as they could clear off the
arrears of pay. They looked upon the Code Bolivar itself as a
badge of servitude, and were not sorry when the domestic
disturbances of Colombia summoned the Dictator from among them
[September, 1826]. The Peruvians, who owed a heavy debt, both
in money and gratitude, to Colombia, now altogether repudiated
Bolivar, his code, and his government; and the Bolivians
followed their example by expelling Sucre and his Colombian
troops (1828). The revolution which expelled the Colombian
element was mainly a national and military one: but it was no
doubt assisted by whatever of liberalism existed in the
country. Bolivar had now shown himself in Colombia to be the
apostle of military tyranny, and he was not likely to assume
another character in Peru. The ascendeney of Colombia in the
Perus was thus of short duration; but the people of the two
Perus only exchanged Colombian dictatorship for that of the
generals of their own nation."

_E. J. Payne,
History of European Colonies,
pages 290-291._