Chapter 3: , page 89 (60)

"About the year 580, in the pontificate of Pelagius, Gregory
occupied the rank of a deacon among the Roman clergy. He was
early noted for his zeal and piety; coming into large
possessions, as an off-shoot of an ancient and noble family,
he had expended his wealth in the foundation of no less than
seven monasteries, and had become himself the abbot of one of
them, St. Andrew's, at Rome. Devoted as he was from the first
to all the good works to which the religious profession might
best apply itself, his attention was more particularly turned
to the cause of Christian missions by casually remarking a
troop of young slaves exhibited for sale in the Roman market.
Struck with the beauty or fresh complexion of these strangers,
he asked whether they were Christians or Pagans. They were
Pagans, it was replied. How sad, he exclaimed, that such fair
countenances should lie under the power of demons. 'Whence came
they?'—'From Anglia.'—'Truly they are Angels. What is the
name of their country?'—'Deira.'—'Truly they are subject to
the wrath of God: ira Dei. And their king?'—'Is named
Ælla.'—'Let them learn to sing Allelujah.' Britain had lately
fallen under the sway of the heathen Angles. Throughout the
eastern section of the island, the faith of Christ, which had
been established there from early times, had been, it seems,
utterly extirpated. The British church of Lucius and Albanus
still lingered, but was chiefly confined within the ruder
districts of Cornwall, Wales, and Cumbria. The reported
destruction of the people with all their churches, and all
their culture, begun by the Picts and Scots, and carried on by
the Angles and their kindred Saxons, had made a profound
impression upon Christendom. The 'Groans of the Britons' had
terrified all mankind, and discouraged even the brave
missionaries of Italy and Gaul. … Gregory determined to make
the sacrifice himself. He prevailed on the Pope to sanction
his enterprise; but the people of Rome, with whom he was a
favourite, interposed, and he was constrained reluctantly to
forego the peril and the blessing. But the sight he had
witnessed in the market-place still retained its impression
upon him. He kept the fair-haired Angles ever in view; and
when, in the year 592, he was himself elevated to the popedom,
he resolved to send a mission, and fling upon the obscure
shores of Britain the full beams of the sun of Christendom, as
they then seemed to shine so conspicuously at Rome. Augustine
was the preacher chosen from among the inmates of one of
Gregory's monasteries, for the arduous task thus imposed upon
him. He was to be accompanied by a select band of twelve
monks, together with a certain number of attendants. … There
is something very remarkable in the facility with which the
fierce idolaters, whose name had struck such terror into the
Christian nations far and near, yielded to the persuasions of
this band of peaceful evangelists."

_C. Merivale,
Four lectures on some Epochs of Early Church History,
pages 192-198._

See ENGLAND: A. D. 597-685.

The Roman missionaries in England landed in Kent and appear to
have had more influence with the petty courts of the little
kingdoms than with the people. The conversion of the North of
England must be credited to the Irish monastery on the island
of Iona. "At the beginning of the sixth century these Irish
Christians were seized with an unconquerable impulse to wander
afar and preach Christianity to the heathen. In 563 Columba,
with twelve confederates, left Ireland and founded a monastery
on a small island off the coast of Scotland (Iona or Hy),
through the influence of which the Scots and Picts of Britain
became converted to Christianity, twenty-three missions among
the Scots and eighteen in the country of the Picts having been
established at the death of Columba (597). Under his third
successor the heathen Saxons were converted; Aedan, summoned
by Osward of Northumbria, having labored among them from 635
to 651 as missionary, abbot, and bishop. His successors,
Finnan and Colman, worthily carried on his work, and
introduced Christianity into other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms near
East Anglia, Mercia, and Essex."

_H. Zimmer,
The Irish Element in Mediæval Culture,
pages 19-21._

{464}

"Two bands of devoted men had hitherto been employed in the
conversion of England, the Roman, assisted by their converts
and some teachers from France, and the Irish, who were plainly
the larger body. Between the two there were the old
differences as to the time of keeping Easter and the form of
the clerical tonsure. … Thus, while Oswy [King of Mercia]
was celebrating Easter according to the custom he had learnt
at Iona, his queen Earfleda observed it according to the rule
which she had learnt in Kent, and was still practising the
austerities of Lent. These differences were tolerated during
the Episcopate of Aidan and Finan, but when Finan died and was
succeeded by Colman, the controversy" was terminated by Oswy,
after much debate, with the words—"'I will hold to St. Peter,
lest, when I present myself at the gates of Heaven, he should
close them against me.' … Colman, with all his Irish
brethren, and thirty Northumbrians who had joined the
monastery, quitted Lindisfarne and sailed to Iona."

_G. F. Maclear,
Conversion of the West: The English,
pages 81-85._

The impartial historian to whom we owe all the early history
of the English Church, thus records the memory of these
devoted men as it remained in the minds of Englishmen long
after their departure. It is a brief passage, one like those
in the greater Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius, which must
stand for much we do not know. Referring to their devoted
lives—"For this reason the religious habit was at that time
in great veneration; so that wheresoever any clergyman or monk
happened to come, he was joyfully received by all persons, as
God's servant; and if they chanced to meet him upon the way,
they ran to him, and bowing, were glad to be signed with his
hand, or blessed with his mouth. Great attention was also paid
to their exhortations; and on Sundays they flocked eagerly to
the church, or the monasteries, not to feed their bodies, but
to hear the word of God; and if any priest happened to come
into a village, the inhabitants flocked together to hear from
him the word of life; for the priests and clergymen went into
the village on no other account than to preach, baptize, visit
the sick, and, in few words, to take care of souls; and they
were so free from worldly avarice, that none of them received
lands and possessions for building monasteries, unless they
were compelled to do so by the temporal authorities; which
custom was for some time after observed in all the churches of
the Northumbrians. But enough has now been said on this
subject."

_The Venerable Bede's Ecclesiastical History of England;
edited by J. A. Giles,
book 3, chapter 26._

The English Church passed through several stages during this
period. A notable one was the rise and fall of a loose
monastic system which attracted men and women of the better
classes, but for lack of a strict rule brought itself into
disrepute. Another was the development of classical learning
and the foundation of the school at Jarrow in Northumberland
resulting in making England the intellectual centre of the
world. Venerable Bede, who wrote the Ecclesiastical History of
the English Church, was the greatest teacher of this epoch;
and Alcuin, a Northumbrian by birth, and of the school at
York, of the next. Invited by Charlemagne to the Frankish
Court, he carried English learning to the Continent, and
although he died at the time of the foundation of the Empire,
left his influence in many ways on the development of European
culture. A single fact of interest will suffice, to show the
close connection of this early history with that of Rome and
the continent—viz., to Alcuin we are largely indebted for the
parent script which formed our Roman letters. (_I. Taylor,
The Alphabet, volume 2, page 180._) Northumbrian learning and the
rich libraries of ancient and Anglo-Saxon literature were
destroyed by the Danes, who, in their incursions, showed for a
long time peculiar animosity to monks and monasteries.
Although the service of this early Anglo-Saxon Church was
partly in the vernacular, and large portions, if not all, of
the Gospels had been translated, little remains to us of its
early religious literature. The translations of the Gospel
into Anglo-Saxon that have come down to us are to be
attributed to a late period.

CHRISTIANITY: 9th Century.
The Bulgarian Church.

"In the beginning of this 9th century, a sister of the
reigning Bulgarian king, Bogoris, had fallen as a captive into
the keeping of the Greek emperor. For thirty-eight years she
lived at Constantinople, and was there instructed in the
doctrines of the Christian Faith. Meanwhile, the
administration passed into the hands of the empress Regent,
Theodora. She was interested in a certain monk named Cupharas,
who had been taken prisoner by the Bulgarians, and with a view
to his redemption, she opened negotiations with Bogoris. An
exchange of prisoners was finally effected. The sister of
Bogoris was restored to him, while Cupharas was permitted to
return to Constantinople. Before the release of the pious
monk, however, he had striven, though quite unavailingly, to
win the Bulgarian prince to the service of the Cross. These
fruitless endeavors were supplemented by the entreaties of the
king's sister, on her return from Constantinople. … At last,
fear snapped the fetters which love had failed to disengage.
… His baptism was celebrated at midnight with profoundest
secrecy. The rite was administered by no less a personage than
the patriarch Photius. He emphasized the solemnity of the
occasion by presenting the neophyte with a lengthy treatise on
Christianity, theoretical and practical, considered mainly in
its bearings on the duties of a monarch. The emperor Michael
stood sponsor by proxy, and the Bulgarian king received, as
his Christian name, that of his imperial god-father. … The
battle-cries of theology rang over Christendom, and the world
was regaled with the spectacle of a struggle between the rival
Churches for the possession of Bulgaria, a country till
recently so conspicuously destitute of dogma of any kind. The
Bulgarians themselves, doubtless much astonished at the uproar
for their sake, and, surely, more perplexed than ever by the
manners and customs of Christianity, began to waver in their
adherence to the Western Church, and to exhibit symptoms of an
inclination to transfer their allegiance to Constantinople.
The strife went on for years. At last, A. D. 877, the Latin
clergy having been dismissed from the country, Pope John VIII.
solemnly expostulated, protesting against the Greek
proclivities of the Bulgarians, and predicting dire results
from their identity with a Church which was rarely free from
heresy in one form or another. Nevertheless, the Byzantine
leanings of Bulgaria did culminate in union with the Eastern Church.
{465}
A Greek archbishop and bishops of the same communion, settled
in the country. … 'The Eastern branch' of the Slavonic
languages, properly so called, 'comprehends the Russian, with
various local dialects, the Bulgarian, and the Illyrian. The
most ancient document of this Eastern branch is the so-called
ecclesiastical Slavonic, i. e., the ancient Bulgarian, into
which Cyrillus and Methodius translated the Bible in the
middle of the 9th century. This is still the authorized
version of the Bible for the whole Slavonic race, and to the
student of the Slavonic languages it is what Gothic is to the
student of German.'"

_G. F. Maclear,
Conversion of the West: The Slavs,
pages 54-69._

CHRISTIANITY: 9th Century.
Conversion of Moravia.

"In the opening years of the 9th century, Moravia stretched
from the Bavarian borders to the Hungarian river Drina, and
from the banks of the Danube, beyond the Carpathian mountains,
to the river Stryi in Southern Poland. Into this territory
Christianity had been ushered as early as A. D. 801, by
Charlemagne, who, as his custom was, enforced baptism at the
point of the sword, at least as far as the king was concerned.
Efforts were subsequently made by the archbishops of Salzburg
and Passau to fan this first feeble flicker into something
like a flame. But no success attended their exertions.
Paganism was overpoweringly strong, and Christianity not only
weak, but rude and uncouth in type. … The story of this
country, during the process of emancipation from paganism, is
but a repetition of the incidents with which, in neighbouring
states, we have already become familiar. Ramifications of the
work of Cyril and Methodius extended into Servia. The Slavonic
alphabet made way there, as in Bohemia and Moravia, for
Christianity. The Servians 'enjoyed the advantage of a liturgy
which was intelligible to them; and we find that, early in the
10th century, a considerable number of Slavonian priests from
all the dioceses were ordained by the bishop of Nona, who was
himself a Slavonian by descent.'"

_G. F. Maclear,
Conversion of the West: The Slavs,
chapter 4._

CHRISTIANITY: 9th-10th Centuries.
The Eastern Church as a missionary Church.

"If the missionary spirit is the best evidence of vitality in
a church, it certainly was not wanting in the Eastern Church
during the ninth and tenth centuries of our era. This period
witnessed the conversion to Christianity of the principal
Slavonic peoples, whereby they are both linked with
Constantinople, and bound together by those associations of
creed, as well as race, which form so important a factor in
the European politics of the present day. The Moravians, the
Bulgarians, and the Russians were now brought within the fold
of the Church; and the way was prepared for that vast
extension of the Greek communion by which it has spread, not
only throughout the Balkan peninsula and the lands to the
north of it, but wherever Russian influence is found—as far
as the White Sea on the one side, and Kamtchatka on the other,
and into the heart of Central Asia. The leaders in this great
work were the two brothers, Cyril and Methodius, who in
consequence of this, have since been known as the Apostles of
the Slavonians. What Mezrop did for the Armenians, what
Ulfilas did for the Goths, was accomplished for that race by
Cyril in the invention of a Slavonic alphabet, which from this
cause is still known by the name of the Cyrillic. The same
teacher, by his translation of the Scriptures into their
tongue, provided them with a literary language, thereby
producing the same result which Luther's Bible subsequently
effected for Germany, and Dante's Divina Commedia for Italy.
It is no matter for surprise that, throughout the whole of
this great branch of the human race—even amongst the
Russians, who owed their Christianity to another source—the
names of these two brothers should occupy the foremost place
in the calendar of Saints. It is not less significant that
their names are not even mentioned by the Byzantine
historians."

_H. F. Tozer,
The Church and the Eastern Empire,
chapter 7._

CHRISTIANITY: 9th-11th Centuries.
The Western Church as a missionary Church.

The earlier missions of the Western Church have been
described, but it is noteworthy that again and again missions
to the same regions are necessary. It requires such a map as
the one accompanying this article to make plain the slowness
of its diffusions and the long period needed to produce even a
nominally Christian Europe. "The views of Charlemagne for the
conquest and conversion of the Northern heathens [see SAXONS:
A. D. 772-804], were not confined to the limits, wide as they
were, of Saxony. The final pacification effected at Salz,
seemed to open his eyes to more extensive enterprises in
prospect. Political may have combined with religious motives
in inducing him to secure the peace of his new frontiers, by
enlisting the tribes of Denmark under the banner of the Cross,
and he conceived the idea of planting a church in the
neighbourhood of Hamburg, which should become a missionary
centre. This plan, though interrupted by his death, was not
neglected by his son Louis le Debonnaire, or 'the Pious.' …
But it is easier to propose such a plan than find one willing
to carry it out. The well-known ferocity of the Northmen long
deterred anyone from offering himself for such a duty. At
length he received intelligence from Wala, the abbot of
Corbey, near Amiens, that one of his monks was not unwilling
to undertake the perilous enterprise, The intrepid volunteer
was Anskar."

_G. F. Maclear,
Conversion of the West: The Northmen,
chapter 2._

"In 822, Harold, the king of Jutland, and claimant of the
crown of Denmark, came to seek the help of Louis the Pious,
the son, and one of the successors, of Charlemagne. … On
Harold's return to Denmark he was accompanied by Anskar, who
well deserves to be called the apostle of Scandinavia. …
Thus Anskar and Autbert set out in the train of Harold, and
during the journey and voyage a kindly feeling sprang up
between the royal and the missionary families. Harold got no
cordial greeting from his proud heathen subjects when he
announced to them that he had done homage to the emperor, and
that he had embraced the gospel. He seems to have been very
sincere and very earnest in his endeavours to induce his
nobles and subjects to abandon idolatry and embrace
Christianity. To expect that he was altogether judicious in
these efforts would be to suppose that he had those views
regarding the relation that ought to subsist between rulers
and subjects, … views regarding liberty of conscience and
the right of private judgment. …
{466}
The result was that after two years, in 828, he was compelled
to abdicate the throne. … The position of Anskar, difficult
as it was while Harold was on the throne, became still more
difficult after his abdication. … But just at the time when
the door was shut against him in Denmark, another was opened
in Sweden, which promised to be wider and more effectual. …
He was kindly received by the Swedish king, who gave him
permission to preach, and his subjects freedom to accept and
profess the gospel of Christ. As Anskar had been led to
expect, so he found, many Christian captives, who had been
brought from other countries,—France, Germany, Britain,
Ireland,—and who, having been as sheep without a shepherd,
gladly received from Anskar those consolations and
exhortations which were fitted to alleviate the sorrows of
their captivity. … After a year and a half's stay in Sweden,
Anskar returned home, and gladdened the heart of the good
emperor, and doubtless of many others, by the cheering
prospect he was able to present of the acceptance of the
gospel by the Swedes. He was now made nominally bishop of
Hamburg, but with the special design of superintending and
conducting missionary operations both in Denmark and
Sweden…. Horik, king of Denmark, who had driven Harold from
his throne, … had been hitherto an uncompromising enemy of
the gospel. Anskar undertook the management of some political
negotiations with him, and in the conduct of them made so
favourable an impression on him that he refused to have any
other negotiator or ambassador of the German king at his
court. He treated him as a personal friend, and gave him full
liberty to conduct missionary operations. These operations he
conducted with his usual zeal, and by God's blessing, with
much success. Many were baptized. The Christians of Germany
and Holland traded more freely with the Danes than before, and
the Danes resorted in larger numbers as traders to Holland and
Germany; and in these and other ways a knowledge of the
gospel, and some apprehension of the blessings which it brings
with it, were diffused among the people. … Although the
Norwegians were continually coming into contact, in the
varying relations of war and peace, with the Swedes and the
Danes, the French and the Germans, the English and the Irish,
and although in this way some knowledge of the Christian
system must have been diffused among them, yet the formal
introduction of it into their country was a full century later
than its introduction into Denmark and Sweden."

_Thomas Smith,
Mediæval Missions,
pages 122-138._

"The conversions in Denmark were confined to the mainland. The
islands still remained pagan, while human victims continued to
be offered till the Emperor Henry I. extorted from Gorm, the
first king of all Denmark, in A. D. 934, protection for the
Christians throughout his realm, and the abolition of human
sacrifices. In Sweden, for seventy years after Anskar's death,
the nucleus of a Christian Church continued to be restricted
to the neighbourhood of Birka, and the country was hardly
visited by Christian missionaries."

_G. F. Maclear,
Conversion of the West: The Northmen,
chapter 2._

"It is very remarkable that, in the whole history of the
introduction of Christianity into Norway and Iceland,
extending over a period of a century and a half, we meet not
with the name of any noted bishop, or ecclesiastic, or
missionary. There were, no doubt, ecclesiastics employed in
the work, and these would appear to have been generally
Englishmen; but they occupied a secondary place, almost their
only province being to baptize those whom the kings compelled
to submit to that ordinance. The kings were the real
missionaries; and one cannot help feeling a kind of admiration
for the ferocious zeal which one and another of them
manifested in the undertaking,—even as the Lord commended the
unjust steward because he had done wisely, although his wisdom
was wholly misdirected. The most persistent and the most
successful of these missionary kings was Olaf the Thick, who
came from England in 1017, and set himself with heart and soul
to the work of the demolition of heathenism, and the
substitution of Christianity as the national religion."

_Thomas Smith,
Mediæval Missions,
pages 140-141._

CHRISTIANITY: 10th Century.
The Russian Church.

"In the middle of the 10th century, the widowed Princess Olga,
lately released from the cares of regency, travelled from Kief
to Constantinople. Whether her visit had political objects, or
whether she was prompted to pay it solely, as some say, by a
desire to know more of the holy faith of which only glimpses
had been vouchsafed her at home, cannot be positively decided.
But her sojourn in the imperial city was a turning-point in
her career. Baptism was administered to her by the patriarch
Polyeuctes, the emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus
officiating as sponsor. Polyeuctes then solemnly addressed the
princess, predicting that through her instrumentality Russia
should be richly blessed. 'Olga,' writes M. Mouravieff, 'now
become Helena by baptism, that she might resemble both in name
and deed the mother of Constantine the Great, stood meekly
bowing down her head, and drinking in, as a sponge that is
thirsty of moisture, the instructions of the prelate.' …
Some latent impressions favourable to Christianity her
youngest grandson, Vladimir, doubtless owed to her.
Nevertheless when, at the death of his brother Yarapolk, for
which indeed he was held responsible, he mounted the throne,
no signs of a gracious character revealed themselves. He was,
on the contrary, a bitter and bigoted pagan. … It seems to
have occurred to many missionaries of varying types, that a
chief of such mark should not be left at the mercy of his own
violent passions. The spiritual well-being of Vladimir
accordingly became the object of laborious journeys, of much
exertion, and of redundant eloquence. … Last of all came a
Greek emissary. He was neither 'a priest nor a missionary, but
a philosopher.' … Like Bogoris, the wild Russian chief was
greatly moved. … The following year the king laid before the
elders of his council the rival pleas of these variously
recommended forms of faith, and solicited their advice. The
nobles mused awhile, and then counselled their master to
ascertain how each religion worked at home. This, they
thought, would be more practical evidence than the plausible
representations of professors. On this suggestion Vladimir
acted. Envoys were chosen,—presumably, for their powers of
observation,—and the embassy of inquiry started. 'This public
agreement,' says the historian of the Russian Church,
'explains in some degree the sudden and general acceptance of
Christianity which shortly after followed in Russia.
{467}
It is probable that not only the chiefs, but the common people
also, were expecting and ready for the change.' A report, far
from encouraging, was in due time received from the
ambassadors. Of the German and Roman, as well as the Jewish,
religions in daily life, they spoke in very disparaging terms,
while they declared the Mussulman creed, when reduced to
practice, to be utterly out of the question. Disappointed in
all these quarters, they now proceeded, by command, to
Constantinople, or, as the Russians called it, Tzaragorod. …
Singularly enough, the Russian envoys, accustomed, as we must
suppose them to have been, only to the barest simplicity of
life, had complained not only of the paucity of decoration in
the Latin churches, but of a lack of beauty in their
appointments. Thus the preparations of the patriarch were
accurately fitted to their expectant frame of mind. They were
led into the church of S. Sophia, gleaming with variegated
marbles, and porphyries, and jasper, at that time 'the
masterpiece of Christian architecture.' The building glittered
with gold, and rich mosaics. The service was that of a high
festival, either of St. John Chrysostom, or of the Death of
the Virgin, and was conducted by the patriarch in person, clad
in his most gorgeous vestments. … On their return to
Vladimir, they dilated with eager delight on the wonders they
had seen. The king listened gravely to their glowing account
of 'the temple, like which there was none upon earth.' After
sweetness, they protested, bitterness would be unbearable, so
that—whatever others might do—they at all events should at
once abandon heathenism. While the king hesitated, his boyers
turned the scale by reminding him that if the creed of the
Greeks had not indeed had much to recommend it, his pious and
sagacious grandmother, Princess Olga, would not have loved and
obeyed it. Her name acted like a talisman. Vladimir resolved
to conform to Christianity. But still, fondly clinging to the
habits of his forefathers, he cherished the idea of wooing and
winning his new religion by the sword. … Under the auspices
of the sovereign, the stately church of St. Basil soon arose,
on the very spot recently occupied by the temple of Perun.
Kief became the centre of Christian influence, whence
evangelizing energies radiated in all directions. Schools and
churches were built, while Michael, the first metropolitan,
attended by his bishops, 'made progresses into the interior of
Russia, everywhere baptizing and instructing the people.' The
Greek canon law came into force, and the use of the
service-book and choral music of the Greek communion became
general, while, in the Slavonic Scriptures and Liturgy of
Cyril and Methodius, a road was discovered which led straight
to the hearts of the native population. 'Cyril and Methodius,
if anyone, must be considered by anticipation as the first
Christian teachers of Russia; their rude alphabet first
instructed the Russian nation in letters, and, by its quaint
Greek characters, still testifies in every Russian book, and
on every Russian house or shop, the Greek source of the
religion and literature of the empire.'"

_G. F. Maclear,
Conversion of the West: The Slavs,
chapter 5._

"As in the first centuries it was necessary that the leaven of
Christianity should gradually penetrate the entire
intellectual life of the cultivated nations, before a new
spiritual creation, striking its root in the forms of the
Grecian and Roman culture, which Christianity appropriated,
could in these forms completely unfold itself; so after the
same manner it was necessary that the leaven of Christianity
which … had been introduced into the masses of the untutored
nations, should gradually penetrate their whole inward life,
before a new and peculiar spiritual creation could spring out
of it, which should go on to unfold itself through the entire
period of the middle ages. And the period in which we now are
must be regarded as still belonging to the epoch of transition
from that old spiritual creation which flourished on the basis
of Grecian and Roman culture to the new one."

_A. Neander,
General History of the Christian Religion and Church,
volume 3, page 456._

We leave the author's sentence incomplete, that it may
express the more fully all the subsequent history of
Christianity.

----------CHRISTIANITY: End----------

CHRISTINA, Queen-regent of Spain, A. D. 1833-1841.

Christina, Queen of Sweden, A. D. 1633-1654.

CHRISTINOS, The.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1833-1846.

CHRISTOPHER I., King of Denmark. A. D. 1252-1259.

Christopher II., A. D. 1319-1334.

Christopher III., King of Denmark,
Sweden and Norway, A. D. 1439-1448.

CHRYSE.

Vague reports of a region called Chryse (the Golden),
somewhere beyond the Ganges, and of an island bearing the same
name, off the mouths of the Ganges, as well as of another
island called Argyre (the Silver Island), were prevalent among
the early Roman geographical writers. They probably all had
reference to the Malay peninsula, which Ptolemy called the
Golden Chersonese.

_E. H. Bunbury,
History of Ancient Geography,
chapter 25._

CHRYSLER'S FARM, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1813 (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER).

CHRYSOBULUM.

See GOLDEN BULL, BYZANTINE.

CHRYSOPOLlS.

Modern Scutari, opposite Constantinople; originally the port
of the city of Chalcedon.

CHRYSOPOLIS, Battle of (A. D. 323).

See Rome: A. D. 305-323.

CHUMARS.

See CASTE SYSTEM OF INDIA.

CHUMASHAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: CHUMASHAN FAMILY.

CHUR, The Bishopric of.

See TYROL,
and SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1396-1499.

CHURCH, The Armenian.

See ARMENIAN CHURCH.

CHURCH OF BOHEMIA, The Utraquist National.

See BOHEMIA: A. D. 1434-1457.

CHURCH IN BRAZIL, Disestablishment of the.

See BRAZIL: A. D. 1889-1891.

CHURCH OF ENGLAND: Origin and Establishment.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1527-1534; 1531-1563; and 1535-1539.

CHURCH OF ENGLAND: The Six Articles.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1539.

CHURCH OF ENGLAND: The completed Church-reform under Edward VI.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1547-1553.

CHURCH OF ENGLAND: The doubtful conflict of religions.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1553.

{468}

CHURCH OF ENGLAND:
Romanism restored by Mary.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1555-1558.

CHURCH OF ENGLAND:
Recovery of Protestantism under Elizabeth.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1558-1588.

CHURCH OF ENGLAND:
The Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1559.

CHURCH OF ENGLAND:
Rise of Puritanism.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1559-1566; 1564-1565 (?).

CHURCH OF ENGLAND:
The Despotism of Laud.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1633-1640.

CHURCH OF ENGLAND:
Rise of the Independents.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1638-1640.

CHURCH OF ENGLAND:
The Root and Branch Bill.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1641 (MARCH-MAY).

CHURCH OF ENGLAND:
The Westminster Assembly.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1643 (JULY), and 1646 (MARCH).

CHURCH OF ENGLAND:
The Solemn League and Covenant.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1643 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).

CHURCH OF ENGLAND:
The Restoration.
The Savoy Conference.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1661 (APRIL-JULY).

CHURCH OF ENGLAND:
The Act of Uniformity and persecution of Nonconformists.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1662-1665.

CHURCH OF ENGLAND:
Charles' Declaration of Indulgence, and the Test Act.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1672-1673, and 1687.

CHURCH OF ENGLAND:
James' Declaration of Indulgence.
Trial of the seven Bishops.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1687-1688.

CHURCH OF ENGLAND:
The Church and the Revolution.
The Non-Jurors.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1689 (APRIL-AUGUST).

CHURCH OF ENGLAND: A. D. 1704.
Queen Anne's Bounty.

See QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY.

CHURCH OF ENGLAND: A. D. 1711-1714.
The Occasional Conformity Bill and the Schism Act.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1711-1714.

CHURCH OF ENGLAND: A. D. 1833-1845.
The Oxford or Tractarian Movement.

See OXFORD OR TRACTARIAN MOVEMENT.

----------CHURCH OF ENGLAND: End----------

CHURCH OF FRANCE.

See GALLICAN CHURCH.

CHURCH, The Greek or Eastern.

See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 330-1054.

CHURCH OF IRELAND, Disestablishment of the.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1868-1870.

CHURCH OF LATTER DAY SAINTS.

See MORMONISM: A. D. 1805-1830.

CHURCH OF ROME.

See PAPACY.

CHURCH, The Russian.
The great schism known as Raskol.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1655-1659.

CHURCH OF SCOTLAND:
Its birth.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1547-1557.

CHURCH OF SCOTLAND:
The First Covenant.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1557.

CHURCH OF SCOTLAND:
Rebellion and triumph of the Lords of the Congregation.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1558-1560.

CHURCH OF SCOTLAND:
Restoration of Episcopacy.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1572.

CHURCH OF SCOTLAND:
The First National Covenant.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1581.

CHURCH OF SCOTLAND:
The Black Acts.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1584.

CHURCH OF SCOTLAND:
Appropriation of Church lands.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1587.

CHURCH OF SCOTLAND:
The Five Articles of Perth.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1618.

CHURCH OF SCOTLAND:
Laud's liturgy and Jenny Geddes' stool.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1637.

CHURCH OF SCOTLAND:
The signing of the National Covenant.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1638.

CHURCH OF SCOTLAND:
The First Bishops' War.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1638-1640.

CHURCH OF SCOTLAND:
The Second Bishops' War.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1640.

CHURCH OF SCOTLAND:
The Westminster Assembly.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1643 (JULY).

CHURCH OF SCOTLAND:
The Solemn League and Covenant.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1643 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).

CHURCH OF SCOTLAND:
Montrose and the Covenanters.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1644-1645.

CHURCH OF SCOTLAND:
The restored king and restored prelacy.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1660-1666.

CHURCH OF SCOTLAND:
Persecutions of the Covenanters.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1669-1679: 1679; 1681-1689.

CHURCH OF SCOTLAND:
The Revolution and re-establishment of the Presbyterian
Church.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1688-1690.

CHURCH OF SCOTLAND:
The Disruption.
Formation of the Free Church.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1843.

----------CHURCH OF SCOTLAND: End----------

CHURUBUSCO, Battle of.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1847 (MARCH-SEPTEMBER).

CIBALIS, Battle of (A. D. 313).

See ROME: A. D. 305-323.

CIBOLA, The Seven Cities of.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PUEBLOS.

CICERO, and the last years of the Roman Republic.

See ROME: B. C. 69-63, to 44-42.

CILICIA.-KILIKIA.

An ancient district in the southeastern corner of Asia Minor,
bordering on Syria. It was a satrapy of the Persian Empire,
then a part of the kingdom of the Selucidæ, and afterwards a
Roman province. The chief city of Cilicia was Tarsus, a very
ancient commercial emporium, whose people were noted for
mental acuteness. The Apostle Paul is to be counted among the
distinguished natives of Tarsus, and a quite remarkable number
of eminent teachers of philosophy were from the same
birthplace.

CILICIA, Pirates of.

During the Mithridatic wars piracy was developed to alarming
proportions in the eastern parts of the Mediterranean Sea.
Distracted by civil conflicts and occupied by foreign ones,
simultaneously, the Romans, for a considerable period, gave no
proper heed to the growth of this lawlessness, until they
found their commerce half destroyed and Rome and Italy
actually threatened with starvation by the intercepting of
their supplies from abroad. The pirates flourished under the
protection and encouragement of the king of Pontus, at whose
instance they established their chief headquarters, their
docks, arsenals and magazines, at various points on the coast
of Cilicia. Hence the name Cilician came to be applied to all
the pirates of the time. This era of piracy was brought to an
end, at last, by Pompey, who was sent against them, B. C. 67,
with extraordinary powers conferred by the law known as the
Lex Gabinia. He proceeded to his undertaking with remarkable
energy and ability, and his hunting down of the freebooters
which he accomplished effectually within three months from the
day his operations began, was really the most brilliant
exploit of his life.

_H. G. Liddell,
History of Rome,
book 7, chapter 63._

ALSO IN:
_C. Merivale,
History of the Romans,
chapter 1._

_G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 3, chapter 6-7._

{469}

CILICIAN GATES.

A pass through the Taurus range of mountains, opening from
Cappadocia into Cilicia, was anciently called the Pylæ Ciliciæ
or Cilician Gates. The city of Tyana was situated at the
entrance to the pass. Both Xenophon and Alexander, who
traversed it, seem to have regarded the pass as one which no
army could force if properly defended.

_E. H. Bunbury,
History of Ancient Geography,
chapter 10, section 2,
and chapter 12, section 1._

CILURNUM.

A Roman city in Britain, "the extensive ruins of which, well
described as a British Pompeii, are visible near the modern
hamlets of Chesters."

_T. Wright,
Celt, Roman and Saxon,
chapter 5._

CIMARRONES, The.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1572-1580,
and JAMAICA: A. D. 1655-1796.

CIMBRI AND TEUTONES, The.

"For a considerable period [second century, B. C.] an
'unsettled people' had been wandering along the northern verge
of the country occupied by the Celts on both sides of the
Danube. They called themselves the Cimbri, that is, the
Chempho, the champions, or, as their enemies translated it,
the robbers; a designation, however, which to all appearance
had become the name of the people even before their migration.
They came from the north, and the first Celtic people with
whom they came in contact were, so far as is known, the Boii,
probably in Bohemia. More exact details as to the cause and
the direction of their migration have not been recorded by
contemporaries and cannot be supplied by conjecture. … But
the hypothesis that the Cimbri, as well as the similar horde
of the Teutones which afterwards joined them, belonged in the
main not to the Celtic nation, to which the Romans at first
assigned them, but to the Germanic, is supported by the most
definite facts: viz., by the existence of two small tribes of
the same name—remnants left behind to all appearance in their
primitive seats—the Cimbri in the modern Denmark, the
Teutones in the north-east of Germany in the neighbourhood of
the Baltic, where Pytheas, a contemporary of Alexander the
Great, makes mention of them thus early in connection with the
amber trade; by the insertion of the Cimbri and Teutones in
the list of the Germanic peoples among the Ingævones alongside
of the Chauci; by the judgment of Cæsar, who first made the
Romans acquainted with the distinction between the Germans and
the Celts, and who includes the Cimbri, many of whom he must
himself have seen, among the Germans; and lastly, by the very
names of the people and the statements as to their physical
appearance and habits. … On the other hand it is conceivable
enough that such a horde, after having wandered perhaps for
many years, and having doubtless welcomed every
brother-in-arms who joined it in its movements near to or
within the land of the Celts, would include a certain amount
of Celtic elements. … When men afterwards began to trace the
chain, of which this emigration, the first Germanic movement
which touched the orbit of ancient civilization, was a link,
the direct and living knowledge of it had long passed away."

_T. Mommsen,
History of Rome,
book 4, chapter 5._

"The name Kymri, or Cymri, still exists. It is the name that
the Welsh give themselves, but I am not aware that any other
people have called them by that name. These Kymri are a branch
of the great Celtic people, and this resemblance of the words
Kymri and Cimbri has led many modern writers to assume that
the Cimbri were also a Celtic people, as many of the ancient
writers name them. But these ancient writers are principally
the later Greeks, who are no authority at all on such a
matter. … The name Cimbri has perished in Germany, while
that of the Teutones, by some strange accident, is now the
name of the whole Germanic population."

_G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 2, chapter 4._

ALSO IN:
_W. Ihne,
History of Rome,
book 7, chapter 9._

CIMBRI: B. C. 113-102.
Battles with the Romans.

The Cimbri and the Teutones made their first appearance on the
Roman horizon in the year 113 B. C. when they entered Noricum.
The Noricans were an independent people, as yet, but accepted
a certain protection from Rome, and the latter sent her
consul, Carbo, with an army, to defend them. Carbo made an
unfortunate attempt to deal treacherously with the invaders
and suffered an appalling defeat. Then the migrating
barbarians, instead of pressing into Italy, on the heels of
the flying Romans, turned westward through Helvetia to Gaul,
and occupied themselves for four years in ravaging that
unhappy country. In 109 B. C., having gathered their plunder
into the fortified town of Aduatuca and left it well
protected, they advanced into the Roman province of Narbo,
Southern Gaul, and demanded land to settle upon. The Romans
resisted and were again overwhelmingly beaten. But even now
the victorious host did not venture to enter Italy, and
nothing is known of its movements until 105 B. C., when a
third Roman army was defeated in Roman Gaul and its commander
taken prisoner and slain. The affrighted Romans sent strong
re-enforcements to the Rhone; but jealousy between the consul
who commanded the new army and the proconsul who retained
command of the old delivered both of them to destruction. They
were virtually annihilated, Oct. 6, B. C. 105, at Arausio
(Orange), on the left bank of the Rhone. It is said that
80,000 Roman soldiers perished on that dreadful field, besides
half as many more of camp followers. "This much is certain,"
says Mommsen, "that only a few out of the two armies succeeded
in escaping, for the Romans had fought with the river in their
rear. It was a calamity which materially and morally far
surpassed the day of Cannæ." In the panic which this disaster
caused at Rome the constitution of the Republic was broken
down. Marius, conqueror of Jugurtha, was recalled from Africa
and not only re-elected to the Consulship, but invested with
the office for five successive years. He took command in Gaul
and found that the formidable invaders had moved off into
Spain. This gave him time, fortunately, for the organizing and
disciplining of his demoralized troops. When the barbarians
reappeared on the Rhone, in the summer of 102 B. C., he faced
them with an army worthy of earlier Roman times. They had now
resolved, apparently, to force their way, at all hazards, into
Italy, and had divided their increasing host, to move on Rome
by two routes. The Cimbri, reinforced by the Tigorini, who had
joined them, made a circuit to the Eastern Alps, while the
Teutones, with Ambrones and Tougeni for confederates crossed
the Rhone and attacked the defenders of the western passes.
Failing to make any impression on the fortified camp of Marius
the Teutones rashly passed it, marching straight for the coast
road to Italy.
{470}
Marius cautiously followed and after some days gave battle to
the barbarians, in the district of Aquæ Sextiæ, a few miles
north of Massilia. The Romans that day took revenge for
Arausio with awful interest. The whole barbaric horde was
annihilated. "So great was the number of dead bodies that the
land in the neighborhood was made fertile by them, and the
people of Massilia used the bones for fencing their
vineyards." Meantime the Cimbri and their fellows had reached
and penetrated the Brenner pass and were in the valley of the
Adige. The Roman army stationed there had given way before
them, and Marius was needed to roll the invasion back. He did
so, on the 30th of July B. C. 101, when the Cimbri were
destroyed, at a battle fought on the Raudine Plain near
Vercellæ, as completely as the Teutones had been destroyed at
Aquæ Sextiæ.

_T. Mommsen,
History of Rome,
book 4, chapter 5._

ALSO IN:
_W. Ihne,
History of Rome,
book 7, chapter 9._

CIMBRIAN CHERSONESUS.

The modern Danish promontory of Jutland; believed to have been
the home of the Cimbri before they migrated southwards and
invaded Gaul.

CIMINIAN FOREST, The.

The mountains of Viterbo, which formed anciently the frontier
of Rome towards Etruria, were then covered with a thick
forest—"the 'silva Ciminia' of which Livy gives so romantic a
description. It was, however, nothing but a natural division
between two nations which were not connected by friendship,
and wished to have little to do with each other. … This
forest was by no means like the 'silva Hercynia' with which
Livy compares it, but was of just such an extent that,
according to his own account, the Romans only wanted a couple
of hours to march through it."

_B. G. Niebuhr,
Lectures on the History of Rome,
lecture 44._

CIMMERIANS, The.

"The name Cimmerians appears in the Odyssey,—the fable
describes them as dwelling beyond the ocean-stream, immersed
in darkness and unblessed by the rays of Helios. Of this
people as existent we can render no account, for they had
passed away, or lost their identity and become subject,
previous to the commencement of trustworthy authorities: but
they seem to have been the chief occupants of the Tauric
Chersonese (Crimea) and of the territory between that
peninsula and the river Tyras (Dneister) at the time when the
Greeks first commenced their permanent settlements on those
coasts in the seventh century B. C. The numerous localities
which bore their name, even in the time of Herodotus, after
they had ceased to exist as a nation,—as well as the tombs of
the Cimmerian kings then shown near the Tyras,—sufficiently
attest the fact; and there is reason to believe that they
were—like their conquerors and successors the Scythians—a
nomadic people, mare-milkers, moving about with their tents
and herds, suitably to the nature of those unbroken steppes
which their territory presented, and which offered little
except herbage in profusion. Strabo tells us—on what
authority we do not know—that they, as well as the Trêres and
other Thracians, had desolated Asia Minor more than once
before the time of Ardys [King of Lydia, seventh century B.
C.] and even earlier than Homer."

_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapter 17._

See, also, CUMÆ.

CIMON, Career of.

See ATHENS: B. C. 477-462, to 460-449.

CIMON, Peace of.

See ATHENS: B. C. 460-449.

CINCINNATI: A. D. 1788.
The founding and naming of the city.

In 1787 "an offer was made to Congress by John Cleve Symmes
[afterwards famous for his theory that the earth is hollow,
with openings at the poles], to buy two millions of acres
between the Little and the Great Miamis. Symmes was a
Jerseyman of wealth, had visited the Shawanese country, had
been greatly pleased with its fertility, and had come away
declaring that every acre in the wildest part was worth a
silver dollar. It was too, he thought, only a question of
time, and a very short time, when this value would be doubled
and tripled. Thousands of immigrants were pouring into this
valley each year, hundreds of thousands of acres were being
taken up, and the day would soon come when the rich land along
the Miamis and the Ohio would be in great demand. There was
therefore a mighty fortune in store for the lucky speculator
who should buy land from Congress for five shillings an acre
and sell it to immigrants for twenty. But … his business
lagged, and though his offer to purchase was made in August,
1787, it was the 15th of May, 1788, before the contract was
closed. In the meantime he put out a pamphlet and made known
his terms of sale. A copy soon fell into the hands of Matthias
Denman. He became interested in the scheme and purchased that
section on which now stands the city of Cincinnati. One third
he kept, one third he sold to Robert Patterson, and the
remainder to John Filson. The conditions of the purchase from
Symmes gave them two years in which to begin making clearings
and building huts. But the three determined to lose no time,
and at once made ready to layout a city directly opposite that
spot where the waters of the Licking mingled themselves with
the Ohio. Denman and Patterson were no scholars. But Filson
had once been a schoolmaster, knew a little of Latin and
something of history, and to him was assigned the duty of
choosing a name for the town. … He determined to make one,
and produced a word that was a most absurd mixture of Latin,
Greek and French. He called the place Losantiville, which,
being interpreted, means the city opposite the mouth of the
Licking. A few weeks later the Indians scalped him."

_J. B. McMaster,
History of the People of the United States,
volume 1, page 516._

The name given a little later to Filson's settlement was
conferred on it by General St. Clair, Governor of the
Territory, in honor of the Society of the Cincinnati.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES: A. D. 1788-1802.

ALSO IN:
_F. W. Miller, Cincinnati's Beginnings._

CINCINNATI: A. D. 1863.
Threatened by John Morgan's Rebel Raid.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (JULY: KENTUCKY).

----------CINCINNATI: End----------

{471}

CINCINNATI, The Society of the.

"Men of the present generation who in childhood rummaged in
their grandmothers' cosy garrets cannot fail to have come
across scores of musty and worm-eaten pamphlets, their yellow
pages crowded with italics and exclamation points, inveighing
in passionate language against the wicked and dangerous
Society of the Cincinnati. Just before the army [of the
American Revolution] was disbanded, the officers, at the
suggestion of General Knox, formed themselves [April, 1783]
into a secret society, for the purpose of keeping up their
friendly intercourse and cherishing the heroic memories of the
struggle in which they had taken part. With the fondness for
classical analogies which characterized that time, they
likened themselves to Cincinnatus, who was taken from the plow
to lead an army, and returned to his quiet farm so soon as his
warlike duties were over. They were modern Cincinnati. A
constitution and by-laws were established for the order, and
Washington was unanimously chosen to be its president. Its
branches in the several states were to hold meetings each
Fourth of July, and there was to be a general meeting of the
whole society every year in the month of May. French officers
who had taken part in the war were admitted to membership, and
the order was to be perpetuated by descent through the eldest
male representatives of the families of the members. It was
further provided that a limited membership should from time to
time be granted, as a distinguished honour, to able and worthy
citizens, without regard to the memories of the war. A golden
American eagle attached to a blue ribbon edged with white was
the sacred badge of the order; and to this emblem especial
favour was shown at the French court, where the insignia of
foreign states were generally, it is said, regarded with
jealousy. No political purpose was to be subserved by this
order of the Cincinnati, save in so far as the members pledged
to one another their determination to promote and cherish the
union between the states. In its main intent the society was
to be a kind of masonic brotherhood, charged with the duty of
aiding the widows and the orphan children of its members in
time of need. Innocent as all this was, however, the news of
the establishment of such a society was greeted with a howl of
indignation all over the country. It was thought that its
founders were inspired by a deep-laid political scheme for
centralizing the government and setting up a hereditary
aristocracy. … The absurdity of the situation was quickly
realized by Washington, and he prevailed upon the society, in
its first annual meeting of May, 1784, to abandon the
principle of hereditary membership. The agitation was thus
allayed, and in the presence of graver questions the
much-dreaded brotherhood gradually ceased to occupy popular
attention."

_J. Fiske,
The Critical Period of American History,
chapter 3._

_J. B. McMaster,
History of the People of the United States,
volume 1, chapter 2._

"The hereditary succession was never abandoned. A
recommendation to that effect was indeed made to the several
State Societies, at the first General Meeting in Philadelphia.
… But the proposition, unwillingly urged, was accepted in
deprecatory terms by some, and by others it was totally
rejected. … At the second General Meeting, it was resolved
'that the alterations could not take effect until they had
been agreed to by all the State Societies.' They never were so
agreed to, and consequently the original Institution remains
in full force. Those Societies that accepted the proposed
alterations unconditionally, of course perished with their own
generation."

_A. Johnston,
Some Accounts of the Society of the Cincinnati
(Pennsylvania Historical Society Memoirs,
volume 6, pages 51-53)._

"The claim to membership has latterly been determined not by
strict primogeniture, but by a 'just elective preference,
especially in the line of the first-born,' who has a moral but
not an absolutely indisputable right; and membership has
always been renewed by election. … Six only of the original
thirteen states—Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, Maryland, and South Carolina—are still [in
1873] represented at the General Meetings. The largest
society, that of Massachusetts, consisting originally of 343
members, now [1873] numbers less than 80; that of New York,
from 230 had in 1858 decreased to 73; the 268 of Pennsylvania
to about 60; the 110 of New Jersey, in 1866, to 60; and the
131 of South Carolina was, in 1849, reduced to 71."

_F. S. Drake,
Memorials of the Society of the Cincinnati of Massachusetts,
page 37._

CINCO DE MAYO, Battle of (1862).

See MEXICO: A. D. 1861-1867.

CINE, The.

Kinsfolk of the head of the tribe, among the ancient Irish.

CINQ MARS, Conspiracy of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1641-1642.

CINQUE PORTS, The.