Chapter DXXV: Section 63: of this latter act reads: 'For all purposes (4)

"The prince who best sums up the spirit of the century, is not
Frederic [the Great, of Prussia), it is Joseph II. [the
emperor]. Frederic was born a master, Joseph II. a disciple,
and it is by disciples that we judge schools. The king of
Prussia dammed up the waters, directed their flow, made use of
the current: the emperor cast himself upon them and permitted
himself to be carried. With Frederic the statesman always
dominates, it is he who proposes and finally decides; the
philosopher is subordinate: he furnishes to the results
brought about by policy their abstract cause for existence and
their theoretical justification. With Joseph II. rational
conception precedes political calculation and governs it. He
had breadth of mind, but his mind was superficial; ideas
slipped from it. He had a taste for generosity, a passion for
grandeur; but there was nothing profound in him but ambition,
and it was all counter-stroke and reflection. He wished to
surpass Frederic; his entire conduct was but an awkward,
imprudent and ill-advised imitation of this prince whom he had
made his hero, whom history made his rival and whom he copied
while detesting him.
{3687}
The political genius of Frederic was born of good sense and
moderation: there was nothing in Joseph II. but the
immoderate. He was a man of systems: he had only great
velleities. His education was mediocre, and, as to methods,
entirely jesuitical. Into this contracted mould he cast
confusedly notions hastily borrowed from the philosophers of
France, from the economists especially. He thus formed a very
vague ideal of political aspirations and an exaggerated sense
of the power at his disposition to realize them. 'Since I
ascended the throne and have worn the first crown of the
world,' wrote he in 1781, 'I have made Philosophy the lawmaker
of my empire. Her logical applications are going to transform
Austria.' He undertakes reforms in every direction at once.
History is null for him, traditions do not count, nor do facts
acquired. There is no race, nor period, nor surrounding
circumstances: there is the State which is everything and can
do everything. He writes in 1782, to the bishop of Strasbourg:
'In a kingdom governed conformably to my principles,
prejudice, fanaticism, bondage of mind must disappear, and
each of my subjects must be reinstated in the possession of
his natural rights.' He must have unity, and, as a first
condition, the rejection of all previous ideas. Chance makes
him operate on a soil the most heterogeneous, the most
incoherent, the most cut up, parceled out and traversed by
barriers, that there is in Europe. Nothing in common among his
subjects, neither language, nor traditions, nor interests. It
is from this, according to him, that the defect of monarchy
arises. 'The German language is the universal language of my
empire. I am the emperor of Germany, the states which I
possess are provinces which form but one body with the State
of which I am the head. If the kingdom of Hungary were the
most important of my possessions, I should not hesitate to
impose its tongue on the other countries.' So he imposes the
German language on the Hungarians, the Croats, the Tchèques,
the Poles, on all the Slavs. He suppresses the ancient
territorial divisions; they recall the successive
agglomerations, the irregular alluvions which had formed the
monarchy; he establishes thirteen governments and divides them
into circles. The diets disappear; the government passes into
the hands of intendants according to the French formula. In
the cities the burgomaster appointed by the government becomes
a functionary. The nobles lose the part, already much
curtailed, that they still had, here and there, in the
government. He taxes them, he taxes the ecclesiastics; he
meditates establishing a tax proportional to incomes and
reaching all classes. He protects the peasants, alleviates
serfdom, diminishes the corvées, builds hospitals, schools
above all, in which the state will form pupils to obey her.
His ideal would be the equality of his subjects under the
uniform sway of his government. He unifies the laws; he
institutes courts of appeal with a supreme court for the
entire empire. He makes regulations for manufactures, binds
commerce to the most rigorous protective system. Finally he
puts a high hand on the church and decrees tolerance. … This
immense revolution was accomplished by means of decrees, in
less than five years. If we compare the state of cohesion
which the Bourbon government had brought about in France in
1789, with the incoherence of the Austrian monarchy on the
death of Maria Theresa in 1780, it will be seen that the
revolution which caused the Constituent Assembly was a small
matter compared with that which Joseph II. intended to
effect."

_A. Sorel,
L'Europe et la Rêvolution française
(translated from the French),
part 1, pages 119-122._

----------AUSTRIA: End--------

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, Libraries of.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2013).

AUSTRIAN SCHOOLS.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 709).

AVICENNA AND ARABIAN MEDICAL SCIENCE.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 7-11TH CENTURIES (page 2130).

B.

BÂB, The.

The word Bâb, "meaning, in Arabic, 'a gate,' is the title of a
hero of our own days, the founder, if not of a new religion,
at least of a new phase of religious belief. His history, with
that of his first followers, as told by M. le Comte de
Gobineau in his 'Religions et Philosophies dans l'Asie
Centrale,' presents a picture of steadfast adherence to truth
(as they held it), of self-denial, of joyful constancy in the
face of bitterest suffering, torture and death, as vivid and
touching as any that are found in the records of the heroic
days of old. … Among the crowd of pilgrims who flocked to
Mecca in the summer of 1843 was a youth who had then hardly
completed his nineteenth year. He had come from the far
distant city of Shiraz, where his family held an honourable
position, claiming, indeed, to trace their descent from the
great Prophet himself. Thoughtful and devout from his
childhood, Mirza Ali Mohammed had zealously and regularly
practised all religious duties considered binding on an
orthodox Mussulman. He had received a liberal education, and
while still a mere boy had eagerly examined and weighed every
new set of ideas with which he came in contact. Christians,
Jews, Fire-worshippers—he conversed with them all, and studied
their books. … Up to the time of his visiting the shrine of
the Prophet there had been no indication of any departure from
the faith of his fathers. But this pilgrimage, instead of
confirming his faith in Islam, had a quite contrary effect.
While still in the holy city, and still more on the return
journey, he had begun to confide to a select few views which
attracted and delighted them, not more, perhaps, by their
breadth and freedom than by the vague mystery in which they
were still wrapped. His decisive breach with the old faith was
not far distant. … Arrived at Shiraz, his first overt act was
to present to his friends his earliest written works. These
were two: a journal of his pilgrimage and a commentary on a
part of the Korân. In the latter the readers were amazed and
charmed to find meanings and teachings of which they had never
dreamed before. From this time he began to teach more
publicly; and day by day larger crowds flocked around him.
{3688}
In public he still spoke with reverence of the Prophet and his
laws; while in more private conferences he imparted to his
disciples those new ideas which were, perhaps, not yet very
clearly defined in his own mind. Very soon he had gathered
round him a little band of devoted followers, ardently
attached to himself, and ready to sacrifice wealth, life, all,
in the cause of truth. And throughout the great empire men
began everywhere to hear of the fame of Mirza Ali Mohammed.
There was much in the young teacher himself, apart from the
subject of his teaching, to account for this rapid success. Of
blameless life; simple in his habits; strict and regular in
all pious observances, he had already a weight of character to
which his extreme youth added a tenfold interest. But in
addition to these things, he was gifted with striking beauty
of person, and with that subtle, winning sweetness of manner
so often possessed by leaders of men, and to which, more than
to the most weighty arguments, they have often owed their
power. … Ere long, Mirza assumed the title by which he has
since been known throughout Persia—the Bâb—that is, the Door,
the only one through which men can reach the knowledge of God.
It may be well to give here an outline of what the Bâb did
teach. He believed in one God, eternal, unchangeable, Creator
of all things, and into whom all shall finally be reabsorbed.
He taught that God reveals His will to men by a series of
messengers, who, while truly men, are not mere men, but also
divine; that each of these messengers—Moses, Jesus,
Mohammed—is the medium of some new truth, higher than that
brought by the one who preceded him; that he himself, the Bâb,
though claiming divine honours while he lived, was but the
forerunner of one greater than he, the great Revealer—'He whom
God shall manifest, who should complete the revelation of all
truth, and preside at the final judgment, at which all the
good shall be made one with God, and all evil annihilated. One
of the most marked and singular characteristics of his system
is the prominence given in it to that mysterious and fanciful
theory of numbers which had always had so great a charm for
him. Taking various forms of the name of God—'ahyy,' meaning
'the giver of life'; 'wahed,' 'the only One'; or that which is
a most sacred formula, 'Bismillah elemna elegdous,' 'in the
name of God, highest and holiest'—he shows that the letters
composing each of those names, taken by their numerical value,
make up the number 19. This he therefore concludes is the
number which lies at the foundation of all things in heaven
and earth, the harmony of the universe, the number which must
rule in all earthly arrangements. The year should have 19
months, the month 19 days, the day 19 hours. … There are three
points in particular in which the reforms proposed by the Bâb
cannot fail, so far as they gain ground, to have a mighty
effect on society. In the first place, he abolished polygamy;
that is, he so strongly discountenanced it that his followers
universally regard it as a prohibition. In close
connection—almost as a necessary accompaniment of this—he
forbade divorce; that festering sore which corrupts the mass
of Persian society to its very heart, and makes pure family
life almost impossible. His third revolutionary step was in
the same direction. He abolished the veiling of the women. …
While the fame and popularity of the young preacher were daily
increasing, his bold exposure of the vices of the clergy
aroused against him their bitterest enmity." This hostility
soon became influential enough to prevail on the king and his
ministers to silence the Bâb. Mirza was placed under
confinement in his own house; but a chosen band of apostles
went forth to do missionary work throughout the empire, and
their success was great. Ere long, they began to combine
political with religious aims, and one of them, Moulla
Houssein, organized a movement which assumed a revolutionary
character and spread to formidable proportions. The government
became greatly alarmed, and an energetic minister took
measures to suppress the Bâbys, which was done with merciless
vigor. The Bâb, himself, though he had taken no part in the
political doings of his disciples, and had remained a quiet
prisoner on parole at Shiraz, was put to death, after being
brutally exposed for several hours to the insults of a mob.
This was in 1851. The following year witnessed the martyrdom
of a large number of the surviving Bâbys of prominence, all of
whom died for their faith without shrinking—as exalted in
spirit, it would seem, as the early Christian martyrs. But
Bâbism was not extinguished. It is said to have spread
secretly and continually throughout Persia, and to be of
unknown extent at the present day."

_M. F. Wilson,
The Story of the Bâb
(Contemporary Review, December, 1885)._

BABŒUF, Conspiracy of.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1753-1797 (page 2934).

BABYLONIA: Captivity of the Jews.

See JEWS: B. C. 604-536;
and 537 (page 1907).

BABYLONIA:
Commerce.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, ANCIENT.

BABYLONIA:
Education, ancient.

See EDUCATION, ANCIENT (page 674).

BABYLONIA:
Libraries.

See LIBRARIES, ANCIENT (page 2000).

BABYLONIA:
Medical Science.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE, BABYLONIAN (page 2122).

BABYLONIA:
Money and banking.

See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2199).

BACK, Captain, Northern explorations of.

See (in this Supplement)
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1833-1835; and 1836-1837.

BACTERIOLOGY, Development of the science of.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 19TH CENTURY (page 2146).

BALOCHISTAN, BALUCHISTAN.

"Balochistan, in the modern acceptation of the term, may be
said, in a general sense, to include all that tract of country
which has for its northern and north-eastern boundary the
large kingdom of Afghanistan, its eastern frontier being
limited by the British province of Sindh, and its western by
the Persian State, while the Arabian Sea washes its southern
base for a distance of nearly six hundred miles. … In area
Balochistan had long been supposed to cover in its entirety
quite 160,000 square miles, but the latest estimates do not
raise it higher than 140,000 square miles, of which 60,000 are
said to belong to what is termed Persian Balochistan, and the
remaining 80,000 to Kalāti Balochistan, or that portion which
is more or less directly under the rule of the Brāhui Khān of
Kalāt. …
{3689}
Balochistan may be said to be inhabited chiefly by the Baloch
tribe, the most numerous in the country, and this name was
given to the tract they occupy by the great Persian monarch,
Nadir Shah, who, as St. John remarks, after driving the Afghan
invaders from Persia, made himself master in his turn of the
whole country west of the Indus, and placed a native chief
over the new province, formed out of the districts bounded on
the north and south by the Halmand valley and the sea, and
stretching from Karmān on the west to Sindh on the east. This
newly formed province he called Balochistan, or, the country
of the Baloch, from the name of the most widely spread and
numerous, though not the dominant, tribe. According to Masson,
who, it must be admitted, had more ample opportunities of
obtaining correct information on this subject than any other
European, the Balochis are divided into three great classes,
viz.,
(1) the Brahuis;
(2) the Rinds; and
(3) the Lumris (or Numris);
but this must be taken more in the sense of inhabitants of
Balochistan than as divisions of a tribe, since the Brahuis
are of a different race and language and call the true
Balochis 'Nhāruis,' in contradistinction to themselves as
'Brahuis.' … The origin of the word 'Baloch' is evidently
involved in some obscurity, and has given rise to many
different interpretations. Professor Rawlinson supposes it to
be derived from Belūs, king of Babylon, the Nimrod of Holy
Writ, and that from 'Kush,' the father of Nimrod, comes the
name of the Kalāti eastern district, 'Kachh.' Pottinger
believes the Balochis to be of Turkoman lineage, and this from
a similarity in their institutions, habits, religion—in
short, in everything but their language, for which latter
anomaly, however, he has an explanation to offer. But be this
as it may, the very tribe themselves ascribe their origin to
the earliest Muhammadan invaders of Persia, and are extremely
desirous of being supposed to be of Arab extraction. They
reject with scorn all idea of being of the same stock as the
Afghan. They may possibly be of Iranian descent, and the
affinity of their language, the Balochki, to the Persian,
bears out this supposition; but the proper derivation of the
word 'Baloch' still remains an open question. … The Brahuis,
who, as a race, are very numerous in Balochistan, Pottinger
considers to be a nation of Tartar mountaineers, who settled
at a very early period in the southern parts of Asia, where
they led an ambulatory life in Khels, or societies, headed and
governed by their own chiefs and laws for many centuries, till
at length they became incorporated and attained their present
footing at Kalāt and throughout Balochistan generally. Masson
supposes that the word 'Brahui' is a corruption of Ba-roh-i,
meaning, literally, of the waste; and that that race entered
Balochistan originally from the west. … The country may be
considered as divided into two portions—the one, Kalāti
Balochistan, or that either really or nominally under the rule
of the Khān of Kalāt; and the other as Persian Balochistan, or
that part which is more or less directly under the domination
of the Shah of Persia. Of the government of this latter
territory, it will suffice to say that it is at present
administered by the Governor of Bam-Narmashir, a deputy of the
Kermān Governor; but the only district that is directly under
Persian rule is that of Banpur—the rest of the country, says
St. John, is left in charge of the native chiefs, who, in
their turn, interfere but little with the heads of villages
and tribes. … It would … appear that the supremacy of the Shah
over a very large portion of the immense area (60,000 square
miles) known as Persian Balochistan is more nominal than real,
and that the greater number of the chiefs only pay revenue to
their suzerain when compelled to do so. As regards Kalāti
Balochistan, the government is, so to speak, vested
hereditarily in the Brahui Khān of Kalāt, but his sovereignty
in the remote portions of his extensive territory (80,000
square miles), though even in former times more nominal than
real, is at the present moment still more so, owing to the
almost constant altercations and quarrels which take place
between the reigning Khān and his Sardārs, or chiefs. … In …
the modern history of Kalāti Balochistan under the present
dynasty, extending from about the commencement of the 18th
century, when Abdula Khān was ruler, down to the present time,
a period of, say, nearly 180 years, there is not much to call
for remark. Undoubtedly the Augustan age of Balochistan was
the reign of the first Nasir Khān [1755-1795], the Great
Nasir, as he is to this day called by the Balochis. Of his
predecessors little seems to be known; they were indeed simply
successful robbers on a large scale, with but few traces of
any enlightened policy to gild over a long succession of deeds
of lawlessness, rapine, and bloodshed. … Had his successors
been of the same stamp and metal as himself, the Kalāti
kingdom of to-day would not perhaps show that anarchy and
confusion which are now its most striking characteristics."

_A. W. Hughes,
The Country of Balochistan,
pages 2-48, and 285._

BANKING, History of.

See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2198).

BANKS, Nathaniel P.
His election to the Speakership.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1855-1856 (page 3396).

BAPTIST CHURCH, The first in Rhode Island.

See RHODE ISLAND: A. D. 1639 (page 2641).

BAPTISTS.

The name 'Baptist' was not a self-chosen one. In the early
Reformation time those who withdrew from the dominant
churches because of the failure of these churches to
discriminate between the church and the world, between the
regenerate and the unregenerate, and who sought to organize
churches of believers only, laid much stress on the lack of
Scriptural warrant for the baptism of infants and on the
incompatibility of infant baptism with regenerate membership.
Following what they believed to be apostolic precept and
example, they made baptism on a profession of faith a
condition of church-fellowship. This rejection of infant
baptism and this insistence on believers' baptism were so
distinctive of these Christians that they were stigmatized as
'Anabaptists,' 'Catabaptists,' and sometimes as simply
'Baptists'; that is to say, they were declared to be
'rebaptizers,' 'perverters of baptism,' or, as unduly
magnifying baptism and making it the occasion of schism,
simply 'baptizers.' These party names they earnestly
repudiated, preferring to call themselves Brethren,
Christians, Disciples of Christ, Believers, etc. …
{3690}
Baptists have, for the most part, been at one with the Roman
Catholic, the Greek Catholic, and most Protestant communions
in accepting for substance the so-called Apostles', Nicene,
and Athanasian creeds, not, however, because they are
venerable or because of the decisions of ecclesiastical
councils, but because, and only in so far as, they have
appeared to them to be in accord with Scripture. … As regards
the set of doctrines on which Augustin differed from his
theological predecessors, and modern Calvinists from
Arminians, Baptists have always been divided. … The great
majority of the Baptists of today hold to what may be called
moderate Calvinism, or Calvinism tempered with the
evangelical anti-Augustinianism which came through the
Moravian Brethren to Wesley and by him was brought powerfully
to bear on all bodies of evangelical Christians. Baptists are
at one with the great Congregational body and with most of
the minor denominations as regards church government."

_A. H. Newman,
A. History of the Baptist Churches in the United States,
introduction._

"Baptist principles are discoverable in New England from the
very earliest colonial settlements. The Puritans of Plymouth
had mingled with the Dutch Baptists during the ten years of
their sojourn in Holland, and some of them seem to have
brought over Baptist tendencies even in the Mayflower. Dutch
Baptists had emigrated to England and extended their
principles there; and from time to time a persecuted Baptist
in England sought refuge in America, and, planted here,
brought forth fruit after his kind. But as every offshoot of
these principles here was so speedily and vigorously beaten
down by persecution, and especially as, after the banishment
of Roger Williams, there was an asylum a few miles distant,
just over Narraganset Bay, where every persecuted man could
find liberty of conscience, Baptist principles made little
progress in the New England colonies, except Rhode Island, for
the first hundred and twenty years. A little church of Welsh
Baptists was founded in Rehoboth, near the Rhode Island line,
in 1663, and shortly afterwards was compelled by civil force
to remove to Swanzea, where, as it was distant from the
centres of settlement, it was suffered to live without very
much molestation. It still exists, the oldest Baptist church
in the State. In 1665, the First Baptist Church in Boston was
organized, and, alone, for almost a century, withstood the
fire of persecution,—ever in the flames, yet never quite
consumed. In 1693, a second church was constituted in Swanzea,
not as a Regular, but as a Six-Principle, Baptist Church. In
1705, a Baptist church was formed in Groton, Connecticut.
These four churches, three Regular and one Six-Principle,
having in the aggregate probably less than two hundred
members, were all the Baptist churches in New England outside
of Rhode Island previous to the Great Awakening."

_D. Weston.
Early Baptists in Massachusetts
(The Baptists and the National Centenary),
pages 12-18._

"The representative Baptists of London and vicinity, who in
1689 put forth the Confession of Faith which was afterward
adopted by the Philadelphia Association, and is therefore
known in this country as the Philadelphia Confession, copied
the Westminister Confession word for word, wherever their
convictions would permit, and declared that they would thus
show wherein they were at one with their brethren, and what
convictions of truth made impossible a complete union. And
wherever Baptists appeared however or by whomsoever they were
opposed, the ground of complaint against them was their
principles. Some of these principles were sharply antagonistic
to those of existing churches, and also to those on which the
civil governments were administered. They were widely
disseminated, especially in Holland, England, and Wales, and
there were separate churches formed. From purely doctrinal
causes also came divisions among 'the Baptized churches'
themselves. The most notable one was that in England between
the General or Arminian Baptists, and the Particular or
Calvinistic Baptists. With the latter division do the Regular
Baptists of America hold lineal connection. … The churches of
Philadelphia and vicinity kept the closest connection with the
mother country, and were most affected by it. In New England,
in 'the Great Reformation' under the lead of Jonathan Edwards,
there was made from within the Congregational churches a most
vigorous assault against their own 'half-way Covenant' in the
interest of a pure church. Along his lines of thought he
started multitudes who could not stop where he himself
remained and would fain have detained them. They separated
from the Congregational churches, and were hence called
Separates. A large proportion of them became Baptists, and
formed themselves into Baptist churches. Through the labors of
earnest men who went from them to Carolina and Virginia, their
principles were widely disseminated in those and the
neighboring colonies, and, in consequence, many churches came
into existence."

_G. D. B. Pepper,
Doctrinal History and Position (The same),
pages 51-52._

BARDI, The.

See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2206).

BARENTZ, Voyages of.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION:
1594-1595; and 1596-1597.

BARNARD COLLEGE.

See EDUCATION (page 743).

BARRE, Colonel Isaac.
Speech against the Stamp Act.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1765 (page 3186).

BATTLE, Trial by.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1077,
and CRIMINAL: A. D. 1818 (pages 1957 and 1985).

BELCHER, Sir Edward,
Franklin search expedition of.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1852-1854.

BELGIUM:
Constitutional revision of 1893.

See (in this Supplement) CONSTITUTION OF BELGIUM.

BELGIUM:
King Leopold's legacy of the Congo State.

See (in this Supplement) AFRICA: 1889.

BELGIUM:
Libraries.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2013).

BELGIUM:
Schools.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 709).

BELL TELEPHONE, The invention of the.

See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY AND INVENTION:
A. D. 1876-1892 (page 776).

[Transcriber's Note.]
_T. O'Conor Sloane
The Standard Electrical Dictionary,
www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/26535._

BELLAMY, Edward, and the Nationalist Movement.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1888-1893 (page 2956).

BENTHAM, Jeremy, and reforms in the Law of Evidence.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1851 (page 1979).

{3691}

BERNADOTTE:
Election to the throne of Sweden.

See (in this Supplement) SWEDEN: A. D. 1810.

BIBLIOTHÈQUE NATIONALE.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN: FRANCE (page 2010).

BICHAT, and the progress of physiological science.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 18TH CENTURY (page 2142).

BILL OF ATTAINDER.

See (in this Supplement) ATTAINDER

BILLS OF EXCHANGE.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1603 (page 1968).

BIORKO.

See (in this Supplement), COMMERCE, MEDIÆVAL.

BISMARCK'S POLICY AND SPEECHES.

See (in this Supplement) GERMANY: A. D. 1862-1890.

BLACK FRIDAY.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1869 (page 2347).

BLAKE, Admiral Robert, Victories of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1652-1654 (page 885).

BLANC, Louis, and his scheme of stateaided co-operation.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1840-1848 (page 2942).

BLUE LAWS OF CONNECTICUT, The.

"Just when or by whom the acts and proceedings of New Haven
colony were first stigmatized as Blue Laws, cannot now be
ascertained. The presumption, however, is strong that the name
had its origin in New York, and that it gained currency in
Connecticut, among episcopalian and other dissenters from the
established church, between 1720 and 1750. … In the colony of
New Haven, before the union with Connecticut, the privileges
of voting and of holding civil office were, by the
'fundamental agreement,' restricted to church-members. This
peculiarity of her constitution was enough to give color to
the assertion that her legislation was, pre-eminently, blue.
That her old record-book contained a code of 'blue laws' which
were discreditable to puritanism and which testified to the
danger of schism—became, among certain classes, an assured
belief. To this imaginary code wit and malice made large
additions, sometimes by pure invention, sometimes by borrowing
absurd or arbitrary laws from the records of other colonies.
And so the myth grew—till the last vestige of truth was lost
in fable. The earliest mention of the 'New Haven Blue Laws'
that I remember to have seen in print, is in a satirical
pamphlet published in 1762, entitled; 'The Real Advantages
which Ministers and People may enjoy, especially in the
Colonies, by conforming to the Church of England,' etc. … From
the manner in which this allusion is introduced it is evident
that reproach of New Haven for her 'blue laws' was already a
familiar weapon of religious controversy. A few years later—in
1767—William Smith, Chief-Justice of New York, had the
curiosity to inspect 'the first records of the colony of New
Haven, vulgarly called the Blue Laws.' In the continuation of
his history of New York, he gives (p. 93) the result of his
examination: 'A note ought not to be suppressed concerning
these records, to correct a voice of misplaced ridicule. Few
there are, who speak of the Blue Laws, … who do not imagine
they form a code of rules for future conduct, drawn up by an
enthusiastic, precise set of religionists; and if the
inventions of wits, humorists, and buffoons were to be
credited, they must consist of many volumes. The author had
the curiosity to resort to them, when the Commissaries met at
New Haven, for adjusting a partition line between New York and
the Massachusetts in 1767; and a parchment-covered book of
demi-royal paper was handed to him for the laws asked for, as
the only volume in the office passing under this odd title. …
It contains the memorials of the first establishment of the
colony, which consisted of persons who had wandered beyond the
limits of the old charter of the Massachusetts Bay, and who,
as yet unauthorized by the crown to set up any civil
government in due form of law, resolved to conduct themselves
by the Bible. As a necessary consequence, the judges they
chose took up an authority similar to that which every
religious man exercises over his own children and domestics.
Hence their attention to the morals of the people, in
instances with which the civil magistrate can never
intermeddle under a regular well-policied institution;
because, to preserve liberty, they are cognizable only by
parental authority. … So far is the common idea of the blue
laws being a collection of rules from being true, that they
are only records of convictions, consonant, in the judgment of
the magistrates, to the word of God, and dictates of reason.'
… Occasional allusions to the 'Blue Laws' are found in
newspapers and pamphlets printed before the Revolution, but no
specimens of the laws so stigmatised seem to have been
published before 1781, when 'a sketch of some of them' was
given to the world by the Rev. Samuel Peters, in 'A General
History of Connecticut, from its First Settlement under George
Fenwick, Esq.,' etc.: 'By a Gentleman of the Province:'
printed in London, 'for the Author.' … As the sole authority
for the only 'New Haven Blue Laws' that are now popularly
known by the name, he and his book are entitled here to a
larger notice. The late Professor J. L. Kingsley, in the notes
to his Historical Discourse at New Haven (1838), was at the
pains of pointing out 'a few errors'—as he charitably named
them—of 'the work which, more than any other, has given
currency to various misrepresentations respecting the New
Haven colony:' and in this connection he quoted a remark made
by the Rev. Dr. Trumbull, the historian, who was a townsman of
Peters and had known him from childhood,—that, 'of all men
with whom he had ever been acquainted, Dr. Peters, he had
thought, from his first knowledge of him, the least to be
depended upon as to any matter of fact, especially in
story-telling.' The best excuse that can be made for him is,
that he was a victim of pseudomania; that his abhorrence of
truth was in fact a disease, and that he was not morally
responsible for its outbreaks. He could not keep even his name
clear of falsification. It passes into history with doubtful
initials and fictitious titles. … In 1774, his obstinate and
aggressive toryism rendered him very obnoxious to his
neighbors and finally provoked the resentment of the Sons of
Liberty. A party of two or three hundred men paid him a visit,
threatened him (so he averred) with tar and feathers, handled
him somewhat roughly when they detected him in falsehood, and
drew from him a promise that he would not again meddle in
public affairs. … He found his only comfort in the
anticipation that, if his plans of vengeance should succeed,
Connecticut might be blotted out: 'the bounds of New York may
directly extend to Connecticut river, Boston meet them, New
Hampshire take the Province of Maine, and Rhode Island be
swallowed up as Dathan.'
{3692}
In October, 1774, he sailed for England, where he remained
until 1805. He obtained a small pension from the crown, and
some compensation for the property he professed to have lost
in Connecticut: and it was perhaps in the hope of eking out a
livelihood, as well as of gratifying his resentment, that he
employed his pen in abuse of the colony which gave him birth,
and the religion of his fathers. He did not, says Mr.
Duykinck, 'carry his point of dismembering Connecticut, but he
punished the natives almost as effectually by writing a
book—his History of the State.'"

_J. H. Trumbull,
Introduction to "The True-Blue Laws of
Connecticut and New Haven."_

"In this 'History' were collected all the extravagant stories
that had been set afloat during the previous fifty years to
gratify the stupidity of those among the lower classes in New
York who were descended from the Dutch, or the hatred of the
most bitter of the British royalists. This 'History' is the
first and the only 'authority' for the 'Blue Laws' which were
attributed to the early New Haven colonists. … No person in
America who knew anything about the history of his country
ever seriously quoted Dr. Peters's 'History' as an authority
on any subject whatever. The 'Comic History of England,' or
the 'Travels of Baron Munchausen,' would be as little likely
to be quoted in England for any serious purpose. And yet this
falsehood about the 'Blue Laws,' which was thus first
concocted for a purpose, has a vitality which, in some of its
aspects, is amusing."

W. L. Kingsley,
Blackwood's Magazine on the "Blue Laws"
(New Englander, April, 1871), pages 296-299.

BODLEIAN LIBRARY, The.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2016).

BOERHAAVE, and humoral pathology.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 17TH CENTURY (page 2136).

BOLOGNA, University of.

See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL (page 696).

"BOMBA," King.

See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849 (page 1862).

BOOTH, Reverend General William, and the Salvation Army.

See (in this Supplement) SALVATION ARMY.

BOROUGH FRANCHISE, English.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1884-1885 (pages 973-978).

BOSTON LATIN SCHOOL.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 727).

BOTHWELL, James Hepburn, Earl of, and Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots.
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1561-1568 (page 2857).

BOWDOIN COLLEGE.

An act of the Legislature of the province of Maine, approved
in 1794, incorporated the above-named institution. The
management of the college was placed under a board of
trustees, with full powers of control. … That the institution
might not want for proper support, it was further enacted,
'That the clear rents, issues, and profits of all the estate,
real and personal, of which the said corporation shall be
seized or possessed, shall be appropriated to the endowment of
the said college, in such manner as will most effectually
promote virtue, piety, and the knowledge of such of the
languages and the useful and liberal arts and sciences as
shall hereafter be directed from time to time by said
corporation.' Five townships of land, each six miles square,
were granted to the college for Its endowment and vested in
the trustees, provided that fifteen families be settled in
each of the said townships within a period of twelve years,
and provided further that three lots containing 320 acres each
be reserved, one for the first settled minister, one for the
use of the ministry, and one for the support of schools within
the township where it is located. These townships were to be
laid out and assigned from any of the unappropriated lands
belonging to the commonwealth of the district of Maine. The
first money endowment was instituted by a general law of
Massachusetts, approved February 24, 1814, which reads as
follows: 'Be it enacted by the Senate and House of
Representatives in General Court now assembled, That the tax
which the president, directors and company of the
Massachusetts Bank are and shall be liable to pay to the
commonwealth, shall be and hereby is granted to and
appropriated as follows, viz: ten-sixteenths parts thereof to
the president and fellows of Harvard College; and
three-sixteenths parts thereof to the president and trustees
of Williams College; and three-sixteenths thereof
to the president and trustees of Bowdoin College.'"

_F. W. Blackmar,
History of Federal and State Aid to Higher Education in
the United States (Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, 1890, number 1), pages 123-124._

The college was named in honor of Governor James Bowdoin, of
Massachusetts, whose son made valuable gifts to it.

BRACTON, Henry de, and early English Law.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1216-1272 (page 1961).

BRADFORD PRESS, The.

See PRINTING AND PRESS: A. D. 16815-1693:
and 1704-1729 (page 2597).

BRAZIL: A. D. 1891.
Adoption of the Constitution.

For text see CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL (page 518).

BRAZIL: A. D. 1893-1894.
Triumph of the Peixoto government.

"The civil war In Brazil resulted in the complete triumph of
the Peixoto government in the spring. During November [1893]
the insurgents held their own in the harbor of Rio Janeiro,
and in the following month occupied a number of islands in the
bay. On December 1 Admiral Mello, their leader, with two of
his ships, ran past the government batteries and out to sea,
leaving in command in the harbor Admiral da Gama, who up to
that time had remained neutral. The latter shortly after
issued a manifesto pointing to a restoration of the monarchy
as the ultimate purpose of the rebels. This seems to have
tended rather to weaken the insurgent cause, and a month later
da Gama tried in another proclamation to explain away the
interpretation that had been put upon the first. The
government, meanwhile, confined itself to strengthening its
positions in the city and along the shore so as to make any
attempt to land unsuccessful. Desultory hostilities continued
throughout December and January, incidentally to which the
American commander on one occasion enforced respect for
merchant vessels bearing his flag by firing on an insurgent
vessel. On February 12 da Gama made his most elaborate attempt
to gain a foothold on the main land at Armacao, but was repulsed
with severe losses.
{3693}
By this time the insurgent cause was clearly on the decline.
On the first of March a presidential election was held, which
resulted in the choice of Prudente Moraes, a civilian. This
removed the leading grievance of the rebels, that Piexoto was
perpetuating a regime of pure militarism. On the 11th of March
the fleet which the government had been fitting out in the United
States and Europe appeared at the entrance to the harbor of
Rio, and Peixoto gave notice of an active movement against the
rebels. Da Gama promptly offered to surrender on certain
conditions, which being refused, he and his officers sought
asylum on first a French and later a Portuguese war vessel.
Thus deserted, the crews of the insurgent vessels surrendered
without resistance when the government batteries opened fire
on the 13th. Admiral Mello, meanwhile, had been operating with
some success in connection with the insurgents on land in the
southern states of Brazil. In the first part of April,
however, the government forces totally defeated the rebels in
Rio Grande do Sul, and Mello, about the middle of the month,
surrendered himself and his command to the Uruguayan
authorities, by whom they were disarmed."

_Political Science Quarterly,
June, 1894._

BREAKSPEAR, Nicholas.
Pope Hadrian IV., 1154-1159.

BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LIFE, Schools of the.

See EDUCATION, RENAISSANCE (page 705).

BRISBANE, Albert, and Fourierism in America.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1832-1847,
and 1841-1847 (pages 2940 and 2944).

BRITANNIC FEDERATION, Proposed.

See FEDERAL GOVERNMENT (page 1112).

BRITISH MUSEUM LIBRARY, The.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN: ENGLAND (page 2014).

BROCTON COMMUNITY, The.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1867-1875 (page 2951).

BROOK FARM.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS; A. D. 1841-1847 (page 2943).

BROTHERHOOD OF THE NEW LIFE, The.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1867-1875 (page 2951).

BROWN UNIVERSITY.

"Brown University, the oldest and best endowed institution of
learning connected with the Baptist denomination, dates back
for its origin to a period anterior to the American
Revolution, when in all the thirteen colonies there were less
than 70 Baptist churches, with perhaps 4,000 communicants. It
is not surprising that, at the memorable meeting of the
Philadelphia Association, held on the 12th of October, 1762,
when the members were finally led to regard it, in the words
of Backus, as 'practicable and expedient to erect a College in
the Colony of Rhode Island, under the chief direction of the
Baptists, in which education might be promoted and superior
learning obtained, free from any sectarian tests,' the mover
in the matter should at first have been laughed at, the thing
being looked upon as, under the circumstances, an utter
impossibility. But lenders at that time, like Morgan Edwards
and Isaac Eaton, Samuel Jones, Abel Morgan, Benjamin Griffith,
John Sutton and John Gano, were men of faith. … At the time of
which I speak, there was graduated from Princeton, with the
second honors of his class, a man of wonderful mental and
physical endowments, an early pupil of Isaac Eaton at
Hopewell, James Manning, of Elizabethtown, New Jersey. To him
the enterprise of the college was by common consent intrusted.
… The first commencement of the college, which was held in the
then new Baptist meeting-house of the town of Warren, on the
7th of September, 1769, has already been regarded as a Red
Letter Day in its history. Five years previous, the General
Assembly, begun and holden by adjournment at East Greenwich,
on the last Monday in February, 1764; after various
difficulties and delays, in consequence of the determined
opposition of those who were unfriendly to the movement, had
granted a charter for a 'College or University in the English
Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, in New
England in America.' Such is the language of the act of
incorporation. But though Rhode Island had been selected for
its home by the original projectors of the institution, and a
liberal and ample charter had thus been secured, the college
itself was still in embryo. Without funds, without students,
and with no present prospect of support, a beginning must be
made where the president could be the pastor of a church, and
thus obtain an adequate compensation for his services. Warren,
then as now, a delightful and flourishing inland town,
situated 10 miles from Providence, seemed to meet the
requisite requirements and thither, accordingly, Manning
removed with his family in the spring of 1764. He at once
commenced a Latin School, as the first step preparatory to the
work of college instruction. Before the close of the year a
church was organized, over which he was duly installed as
pastor. The following year, at the second annual meeting of
the corporation, held in Newport, Wednesday, September 3d, he
was formally elected, in the language of the records,
'President of the College, Professor of Languages and other
branches of learning, with full power to act in these
capacities at Warren or elsewhere.' On that same day, as
appears from a paper now on file in the archives of the
Library, the president matriculated his first student, William
Rogers, a lad of fourteen, the son of Captain William Rogers,
of Newport. Not only was this lad the first student of the
college, but he was also the first freshman class. Indeed, for
a period of nine months and seventeen days, as appears from
the paper already referred to, he constituted the entire body
of students. From such feeble beginnings has the university
sprung."

_R. A. Guild,
The First Commencement of Rhode Island College
(Rhode Island Historical Society Collections, v. 7),
pages 269-271._

Six years after the founding of the University it was removed
from Warren to Providence, and its name changed from Rhode
Island College to Brown University, in honor of John Brown, of
Providence, who was its most liberal benefactor.

_G. W. Greene,
Short History of Rhode Island,
page 196._

Although founded by the Baptist Church, the charter of the
University "expressly forbids the use of religious tests. The
corporation is divided into two Boards—the Trustees, 36 in
number, of whom 22 must be Baptists, 5 Quakers, 5
Episcopalians, and 4 Congregationalists, and the Fellows, 12
in number, of whom 8, including the President, must be
Baptists, and the remainder of other denominations. Twelve
Trustees and 5 Fellows form a quorum. The college estate, the
students, and the members of the faculty, with their families,
are exempt from taxation and from serving as jurors."

_S. G. Arnold,
History of the State of Rhode Island,
chapter 18 (volume 2)._

{3694}

BRUCHION, Library of the.

See LIBRARIES, ANCIENT (page 2003).

BRUNONIAN SYSTEM, The.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 18TH CENTURY (page 2141).

BRYN MAWR COLLEGE.

See EDUCATION (page 743).

BUBBLE ACT, The.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1710 (page 1971).

BULGARIANS, The conversion of the.

See CHRISTIANITY: 9TH CENTURY (page 464).

BUREAU OF EDUCATION, The United States.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 735).

BURKE, Edmund.
Speech on Conciliation of the American Colonies.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1775 (pages 3218-3221).

BYNG, Admiral John, Execution of.

See MINORCA: A. D. 1756 (page 2187).

BYZANTINE TRADE.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, MEDIÆVAL.

CABOTS, Voyages of the.

See (in this Supplement) AMERICA.

C.

CALHOUN, John C., The aggressive proslavery policy of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1837-1838, and 1847 (pages 3375 and 3380).

CAMBOJA.

See TONKIN (page 3114).

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY.

See EDUCATION (pages 701, 706 and 710).

CAMPBELLITES, The.

See (in this Supplement) DISCIPLES OF CHRIST.

CANADA:
Constitution of the Dominion.

See CONSTITUTION OF CANADA (page 526).

CANADA:
Libraries.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN: CANADA (page 2023).

CANADA:
The Ontario school system.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 733).

CANALS.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, MODERN.

CANULEIAN LAW, The.

See ROME: B. C. 445-400 (page 2667).

CAPITAL PUNISHMENT.

See LAW, CRIMINAL: A. D. 1600,
and 1660-1820 (pages 1983 and 1984).

CARNATIC, The.

See (in this Supplement) KARNATIC.

CARNOT, President Sadi, The assassination of.

See (in this Supplement) FRANCE: A. D. 1894-1895.

CARTHAGINIAN COMMERCE.

See (In this Supplement) COMMERCE, ANCIENT.

CASHGAR.

See TURKESTAN (page 3130);
and YAKOOB BEG (page 3662).

CASIMIR-PERIER,
Election to the Presidency of the French Republic,
and resignation.

See (in this Supplement) FRANCE: A. D. 1894-1895.

CATHOLIC REACTION IN GERMANY, The.

See (in this Supplement) GERMANY: 16TH CENTURY;
also, page 2457.

CAUCASUS, The Races of the.

"One of the most remarkable characteristics of the Caucasus is
that, while it has acted as a barrier between the north and
the south, stopping and turning aside the movements of
population, it has also preserved within its sheltered
recesses fragments of the different peoples who from time to
time have passed by it, or who have been driven by conquest
into it from the lower country. Thus it is a kind of
ethnological museum, where specimens may be found of countless
races and languages, some of which probably belong to the
early ages of the world; races that seem to have little
affinity with their present neighbours, and of whose history
we know nothing except what comparative philology can reveal.
Even before the Christian era it was famous for the variety of
its peoples. … No more inappropriate ethnological name was
ever propounded than that of Caucasian for a fancied division
of the human family, the cream of mankind, from which the
civilized peoples of Europe are supposed to have sprung. For
the Caucasus is to-day as it was in Strabo's time, full of
races differing in religion, language, aspect, manners,
character."

_J. Bryce,
Trans-caucasia and Ararat,
chapter 2._

CELESTINES, CELESTINIANS.

A religious order founded by the hermit, Peter of Morone, who
afterwards, in 1294, became Pope, and took the name Celestine
V. The rules of the order were austere. It became widespread
throughout Europe, but was suppressed in France in 1766.

CENSORSHIP OF THE PRESS, in England and Germany.

See PRINTING AND PRESS: A. D. 1695 (pages 2597 and 1602).

CENSUS, United States.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1790 (page 3305); 1800 (page 3324), and after.

CHANCELLOR. CHANCERY.

See LAW, EQUITY (page 1988).

CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE.

See GERMANY: A. D. 687-800, 800, and
814-843 (pages 1436-1438); and (in this Supplement) ROME.

CHARLEMAGNE'S PALATINE SCHOOL.

See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL (page 689).

CHARTERHOUSE SCHOOL.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 712).

CHASE, Judge, Impeachment and trial of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1804-1805 (page 3329).

CHATHAM, John Pitt, Earl of, and the Walcheren expedition.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1809 (page 947).

CHATHAM, William Pitt, Earl of,
Speech on the repeal of the Stamp Act.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1766 (page 3201).

CHICAGO UNIVERSITY, The founding of the.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 738).

CHILE.