Chapter IV: Of Provincial and Communal Institutions (14)

1734.
Conquest of Naples and Sicily by Don Carlos, son of the
king of Spain, and assumption by him of the kingship of
the Two Sicilies, under the name and style of Charles III.
Zenger's trial in New York and vindication of the freedom
of the English colonial press.

1735.
Treaty of Vienna between France, Austria and Spain,
confirming Charles III. in possession of the kingdom
of the Two Sicilies; ceding Lorraine to France and
Tuscany in reversion to the former duke of Lorraine.
First Moravian (Unitas Fratrum) settlement in America
planted in Georgia.
Birth of John Adams (d. 1826).

1736.
Founding of the short-lived realm of King Theodore in Corsica.
Publication of Butler's "Analogy of Religion."
Porteous riots in Edinburgh.
Birth of Lagrange (d. 1813).

1737.
Birth of Edward Gibbon (d. 1794).

1738.
Treaty of France with Austria guaranteeing the Pragmatic
Sanction of Charles VI.

1739.
War of Jenkins' Ear, between Great Britain and Spain.
Capture of Delhi, in India, with sack and massacre,
by Nadir Shah, the Persian conqueror.

1740.
Accession of Frederick the Great in Prussia.
Death of the Emperor Charles VI.
Treachery of the Powers which had guaranteed the Austrian
succession to Maria Theresa.
Opening of the War of the Succession.
Invasion of Silesia by Frederick of Prussia.
Election of Pope Benedict XIV.
Settlement of the Moravians (Unitas Fratrum) in
Pennsylvania, at Bethlehem.
First performance of Händel's "Messiah."

1741.
Battle of Mollwitz.
Alliance of Prussia, France and Bavaria.
Appeal of Maria Theresa to the Hungarians.
Franco-Bavarian invasion of Bohemia and Austrian
invasion of Bavaria.
Secret bargain of Frederick with Maria Theresa, and
abandonment of his allies.
Pretended Negro Plot in New York.
Publication of the first volume of Hume's
"Essays Moral and Political."

1742.
Resignation of Walpole from the British Ministry.
Imperial election and coronation of the elector of Bavaria
as Charles VII.
Reversing of the treachery of Frederick and renewal of
his war with Austria.
Battle of Chotusitz.
Treaty of Breslau between Austria and Prussia.
Cession of Silesia and Glatz to Frederick.
Continuation of the war of Austria and France.
Expulsion of the French from Bohemia.
Birth of Scheele (d. 1786).

1743.
The second Bourbon Family Compact between the sovereigns
of France and Spain.
Great Britain involved in the War of the Austrian
Succession, supporting the cause of Maria Theresa.
Victory of the "Pragmatic Army" (English and Hanoverian)
at Dettingen.
Birth of Thomas Jefferson (d. 1826).
Birth of Toussaint L' Ouverture (d. 1803).
Birth of Lavoisier (d. 1794).

1744.
Renewal of war with Austria by Frederick of Prussia.
His invasion of Bohemia, his capture of Prague and
his forced retreat.
Birth of Herder (d. 1803).

1745.
The last Jacobite rebellion in Great Britain.
Death of Sir Robert Walpole.
Capture of Louisburg and the island of Cape Breton from
France by the New England colonists.
Death of the Emperor Charles VII.
Defeat of the British and Dutch by the French at Fontenoy.
Peace made by Austria with Bavaria, and alliance with
Saxony against the king of Prussia.
Prussian victories at Hohenfriedberg, Sohr, Hennersdorf,
and Kesselsdorf.
Election of the husband of Maria Theresa to the Imperial
throne, as Francis I.
Peace between Austria and Prussia.
Success of the French, Spaniards, and Genoese in Lombardy,
expelling the Austrians from every part except the
citadel of Milan and the fortress of Mantua.
Invention of the Leyden jar.

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1746.
French conquest of the Austrian Netherlands.
Retreat of Spaniards and French from North Italy.
Surrender of Genoa to the Austrians, and their expulsion
by a popular rising.
Capture of Madras by the French.
Birth of Pestalozzi (d. 1827).
Birth of Henry Grattan (d. 1820).

1747.
French invasion of the United Provinces (Holland);
risings of the Orange party;
restoration of the Stadtholdership,
in the person of William IV.
Unsuccessful siege of Genoa by the Austrians and Sardinians.
Franklin's identification of lightning with electricity.
Murder of Nadir Shah, the Persian conqueror.

1748.
Treaty of Aix-Ia-Chapelle, ending the War of the
Austrian Succession;
general restoration of conquests made during the war;
confirmation of Silesia and Glatz to Frederick of Prussia;
general guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI.
Beginning of excavations at Pompeii.
Birth of Jeremy Bentham (d. 1832).

1749.
Formation of the Ohio Company, with a royal grant of lands
in the Ohio Valley.
Founding of Halifax, Nova Scotia.
Publication of Montesquieu's "Esprit des Lois";
of Fielding's "Tom Jones," and of John Wesley's
"Plain account of the people called Methodists."
Birth of Charles James Fox (d. 1806).
Birth of Goethe (d. 1832).
Birth of Mirabeau (d. 171)1).
Birth of Vittorio Alfieri (d. 1803).
Birth of Laplace (d. 1827).
Birth of Jenner (d. 1823).

1751.
Beginning of the military career of Clive in India by the
taking of Arcot from the French.
Introduction of the Gregorian Calendar, or change from
Old Style to New, in England.
Publication of Gray's "Elegy in a Country Churchyard,"
and of the first volume of "L' Encyclopedie."
Birth of R. B. Sheridan (d. 1816).
Birth of James Madison (d. 1836).

1754.
Founding of King's College (now Columbia) at New York.
Congress of the American Colonies at Albany and
plans of Union.
Building of Fort Duquesne by the French and Washington's
expedition against them.
Publication of the first volume of
Hume's "History of England."
Birth of Talleyrand (d. 1838).

1755.
Beginning of the Seven Years War, called in America
the French and Indian War;
Braddock's defeat by the French and Indians in America;
battle of Lake George and defeat of the French;
dispersion in exile of the French Acadians from Nova Scotia.
Birth of Hahnemann, the originator of Homœopathy.
Great earthquake at Lisbon.
Birth of John Marshall (d. 1835).

1756.
Formal declarations of war by Great Britain and France;
conquest of Minorca by the French from the English.
Invasion and occupation of Saxony by Frederick of Prussia.
Frederick under the Ban of the Empire.
Capture of Delhi by the Afghan Durances;
capture of Calcutta by Shrajah Dowlah,
and tragedy of the Black Hole.
Birth of Mozart (d. 1791 [Uncertain date]).

1757.
Execution in England of Admiral Byng.
Beginning of the administration of the elder Pitt.
Invasion of Bohemia by Frederick;
his victory at Prague, his defeat at Kolin, convention of
Closter-Seven, battles of Rossbach and Leuthen.
Capture of Fort William Henry in America, by the French.
Franklin's mission to England for the Pennsylvanians.
Clive's overthrow of Surajah Dowlah at the battle of
Plassey, in India.
Birth of Canova (d. 1822).
Birth of Alexander Hamilton (d. 1804).
Birth of Lafayette (d. 1834).
Birth of Baron von Stein (d. 1831).

1758.
Siege of Olmutz by Frederick;
his victory over the Russians at Zorndorf;
his defeat by the Austrians at Hochkirch.
Election of Pope Clement XIII.
Repulse of the British at Ticonderoga, in America;
capture of Louisburg and Fort Du Quesne (afterwards
Pittsburg) by the English from the French.
Beginning of the publication of Dr. Johnson's "Idler."
Birth of Lord Nelson (d. 1805).
Birth of Robespierre (d. 1794).

1759.
Naval battles of the English and French off Lagos and in
Quiberon Bay.
Battles of Bergen and Minden in Germany;
defeat of Frederick at Kunersdorf;
loss of Dresden;
capitulation of Maxen.
Expulsion of the Jesuits from the Portuguese dominions.
Capture of Quebec, in Canada, from the French,
by General Wolfe;
British capture of Fort Niagara, Ticonderoga and Crown Point.
Opening of the British Museum.
Publication of Dr. Johnson's "Rasselas," Adam Smith's
"Moral Sentiments," the first volumes of Sterne's
"Tristram Shandy," and the first volume
of the "Annual Register," edited by Burke.
Birth of Schiller (d. 1805).
Birth of Robert Burns (d. 1796).
Birth of William Wilberforce (d. 1833).
Birth of William Pitt (d. 1806).

1760.
Death of George II., king of England;
accession of George III.
Frederick's bombardment of Dresden.
Battles of Liegnitz, Torgau and Warburg.
Completion of the English conquest of Canada.
Defeat of the French by the English,
in India, at Wandiwash.
Publication of Rousseau's "Nouvelle Heloise," and
Goldsmith's "Citizen of the World."

1761.
Resignation of Pitt from the British Ministry.
The third Bourbon Family Compact of
the French and Spanish kings.
Campaigns in Saxony and Silesia.
Battle of Panniput in India and defeat of the Mahrattas
by the Afghans.
Speech of Otis, at Boston, against the Writs of Assistance.
Surrender of Pondicherry to the English by the French.

1762.
Ascendancy of Lord Bute in the British Ministry;
publication of Wilkes' "North Briton;"
declaration of war against Spain;
siege and conquest of Havana.
Death of the Empress Elizabeth of Russia;
accession, deposition and murder of Peter III.;
elevation of Catherine II. to the throne.
Decree of the Parliament of Paris for the suppression of
the Society of Jesus.
Publication of Macpherson's "Poems of Ossian,"
and of Rousseau's "Contrat Social."
Birth of Fichte (d. 1814).

1763.
Peace of Paris and Peace of Hubertsburg,
ending the Seven Years War:
cession to Great Britain of Canada, Nova Scotia and
Cape Breton by France, and of Florida by Spain;
transfer of Louisiana to Spain by France.
First English measure (the Sugar Act) for taxing the
American colonies.
Proclamation of King George excluding settlers from the
Northwest territory in America.
Outbreak in America of the Indian war called Pontiac's War.
Resignation of Lord Bute from the British Ministry and
formation of the Grenville Ministry.
Death of Augustus III. of Poland.
Birth of Jean Paul Frederick Richter (d. 1825).

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1764.
Expulsion of Wilkes from the British House of Commons.
Election of Joseph II., King of the Romans.
Election of Stanislaus Poniatowsky to the Polish throne,
under the protection of Russia.
Ordonnance of Louis XV. forbidding the existence of the
Society of Jesus in France.
Beginning of the survey of Mason and Dixon's line,
determining the boundary between Pennsylvania and Maryland.
Publication of Goldsmith's "The Traveller," and
of Rousseau's "Emile."

1765.
First derangement of the English king, George III.
Dismissal of Grenville.
Formation of the Rockingham Ministry.
Death, in Austria, of the Emperor Francis I.;
imperial coronation of Joseph II.
Passage of the English Stamp Act for the taxation of
the American colonies;
formation in the colonies of the Sons of Liberty, and
convening of the Stamp Act Congress.
Publication of the first volume of
Blackstone's "Commentaries."

1766.
The Grafton-Chatham Ministry in power in Great Britain.
Repeal of the colonial Stamp Act.
Discovery of hydrogen, by Cavendish.
Publication of Lessing's "Laokoön," and of
Goldsmith's "Vicar of Wakefield."
Birth of John Dalton (d. 1844).

1761.
Suppression of the Jesuits in Spain.
Beginning of the first war of the English in
India with Hyder Ali.
The Townshend measures of the British Parliament for
taxation of the colonies.
Birth of August Wilhelm von Schlegel (d. 1845).
Birth of Wilhelm von Humboldt (d. 1835).
Birth of Andrew Jackson (d. 1845).
Birth of John Quincy Adams (d. 1848).

1768.
The Middlesex elections in England;
repeated expulsion and re-election of Wilkes;
withdrawal of Chatham from the Ministry.
Religious disturbances in Poland.
Confederation of Bar.
Turkish interference against Russia.
Circular letter of Massachusetts to the
other American colonies.
Cession of Corsica (in revolt) by Genoa to France.

1769.
Demand of Spain, France and Naples at Rome for the
abolition of the Society of Jesus.
Election of Pope Clement XIV.
Patents issued in Great Britain to James Watt for his first
improvements in the steam engine, and to Richard Arkwright
for his roller-spinning "water-frame";
publication of the first "Letters of Junius."
Migration of Daniel Boone from North Carolina into Kentucky.
Birth of Wellington (d. 1852).
Birth of Napoleon Bonaparte in Corsica (d. 1821).
Birth of Alexander von Humboldt (d. 1850).
Birth of Cuvier (d. 1832).

1770.
Patenting in Great Britain of Hargreave's spinning-jenny.
Beginning of the administration of Lord North in Great Britain.
Publication of Burke's "Thoughts on the Present Discontents,"
of Goldsmith's "Deserted Village," and of the first edition
of the "Encyclopædia Britannica."
Birth of Thorwaldsen (d. 1844).
Birth of Wordsworth (d. 1850).
Birth of Hegel (d. 1831).
Birth of George Canning (d. 1827).
Birth of Beethoven (d. 1827).

1771.
Freedom of the reporting of proceedings conceded by
the British Parliament.
Insurrection of the Regulators in North Carolina and
battle of the Alamance.
Constitutional revolution in Sweden carried out
by Gustavus III.
Birth of Bichat (d. 1802).
Birth of Sir Walter Scott (d. 1832).

1772.
Treaty for the first Partitioning of Poland arranged
between Prussia, Austria and Russia.
The institution in the American colonies of Committees
of Correspondence.
Forming of the Watauga Association, from which grew the
State of Tennessee.
Decision by Lord Mansfield, in the case of the negro
Somersett, that a slave cannot be held in England.
Birth of Coleridge (d. 1834).
Birth of Ricardo (d. 1823).

1773.
Papal decree of Pope Clement XIV. abolishing
the Society of Jesus.
Appointment of Warren Hastings, the first English
Governor-General in India.
Resistance in the English American colonies to
the duty on tea;
the Boston tea-party.
Publication of Goethe's "Götz von Berlichingen."
Birth of Metternich (d. 1859).

1774.
Death of Louis XV., king of France;
accession of Louis XVI.
Passage of the Boston Port Bill, the Massachusetts Act,
and the Quebec Act by the British Parliament.
Meeting of the first Continental Congress of the
American colonies;
organization of the revolutionary Provincial Congress in
Massachusetts, and of the Committee of Safety.
Lord Dunmore's War with the Indians;
murder of the family of Logan, the chief.
Publication of Goethe's "Werther."
Discovery of oxygen by Priestley.
Birth of Southey (d. 1843).

1775.
Speech of Burke on "Conciliation with America."
Beginning of the War of the American Revolution:
battles of Lexington and Concord;
siege of Boston;
surprising of Ticonderoga and Crown Point;
battle of Bunker Hill;
creation of the Continental Army;
appointment of Washington Commander-in-Chief;
expedition to Canada.
Execution of Nuncomar in British India.
Election of Pope Pius VI.
Production of Sheridan's "The Rivals" and
of Beaumarchais' "Barbière de Seville."
Birth of Daniel O'Connell (d. 1847).
Birth of Charles Lamb (d. 1834).
Birth of Walter Savage Landor (d. 1864).
Birth of Turner (d. 1851).

1776.
Dismissal of Turgot in France by Louis XVI., yielding to
the intrigues of the French court.
Evacuation of Boston, Massachusetts, by the British army;
repulse of the British from Charleston;
retreat of Arnold from Canada;
Declaration of Independence by the Continental Congress;
battle of Long Island and defeat of the Americans;
retreat of Washington into New Jersey and
his success at Trenton.
Publication of Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations,"
of Paine's "Common Sense,"
of Bentham's "Fragment on Government,"
and of the first volume of Gibbon's"
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire."
Birth of Niebuhr (d. 1831).
Birth of Herbart (d. 1841).

1777.
Washington's victory over Cornwallis at Princeton;
British occupation of Philadelphia, and victories over
the Americans at Brandywine and Germantown;
arrival in America of Lafayette and Steuben;
Burgoyne's expedition from Canada and surrender at Saratoga;
the winter of Washington's army at Valley Forge;
the Conway Cabal.
Production of Sheridan's "School for Scandal."
Birth of Henry Clay (d. 1852).

1778.
War of the Bavarian Succession between Austria and Prussia.
Alliance of France with the American colonies.
British evacuation of Philadelphia and defeat at Monmouth;
Tory and Indian savagery at Cherry Valley and Wyoming;
arrival of a French fleet and army in America;
capture of Savannah by the British.
Publication of Fanny Burney's "Evelina."
Birth of Humphry Davy (d. 1829).
Birth of Guy-Lussac (d. 1850).

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1779.
Clark's conquest of the Northwest for Virginia;
storming of Stony Point on the Hudson by General Wayne;
expedition of General Sullivan against the Seneca Indians
in western New York;
sea-fight of the Bon Homme Richard (Paul Jones) and
the Serapis;
repulse of French and Americans from Savannah.
Publication of Lessing's "Nathan der Weise."
Birth of Joseph Story (d. 1845).
Birth of Thomas Moore (d. 1852).
Birth of Berzelius (d. 1848).

1780.
The Gordon No-Popery Riots in England.
Death of Maria Theresa of Austria.
Second war of the British in India with Hyder Ali.
British siege and capture of Charleston, S. C., and defeat
of the Americans at Camden;
treason of Benedict Arnold;
American victory at King's Mountain.
Insurrection of Tupac Amaru in Peru.
Gradual emancipation act passed in Pennsylvania.
Birth of Béranger (d. 1857).

1781.
Dismissal of Neckar by the French king.
Edict of Toleration in the Austrian dominions and
abolition of serfdom, by Joseph II.
Reconquest of West Florida from the English by Spain.
Defeat of British troops by the Americans at the Cowpens
and Guilford Court House;
British victory at Hobkirk's Hill;
drawn battle of Eutaw Springs;
surrender of Cornwallis and the British army at Yorktown;
final ratification of the Articles of Confederation of the
United States of America.
Extinction of slavery in Massachusetts.
English and Dutch naval battle off the Dogger Banks.
Publication of Kant's "Critique of the Pure Reason."
Production of Schiller's "Die Räuber."
Birth of George Stephenson (d. 1848).
Birth of Sir David Brewster (d. 1868).

1782.
English naval victory by Rodney, in the West Indies,
over the French fleet.
Fall of Lord North;
the Rockingham Ministry.
Destruction of the Barrier Fortresses in the Netherlands,
by the Emperor.
The first Sunday School opened by Robert Raikes,
in Massachusetts.
Concession of legislative independence to Ireland by England.
Peace overtures from the British Government to the
United States, and opening of negotiations.
Publication of Priestley's "Corruptions of Christianity."
Birth of Froebel (d. 1852).
Birth of Lamennais (d. 1854).
Birth of John C. Calhoun (d. 1850).
Birth of Daniel Webster (d. 1852).

1783.
Treaty of peace signed at Paris, between Great Britain
and the United States of America;
evacuation of New York by the British army.
Fall of the Coalition Ministry in Great Britain;
beginning of the administration of the younger Pitt.
Seizure of the Crimea by Catherine II. of Russia.
Birth of Bolivar (d. 1830).
Birth of Washington Irving (d. 1859).

1784.
The affair of the Diamond Necklace, in France.
Founding, at Philadelphia, of the first Daily Newspaper
in America.
Appearance of the Peep-o'-Day Boys in Ireland.
Birth of Manzoni (d. 1873).

1785.
Negotiation of the United States with Spain for the free
navigation of the Mississippi river.
Publication of Cowper's "The Task,"
Paley's "Moral and Political Philosophy,"
and Reid's "Essays on the Intellectual Powers."
Birth of De Quincey (d. 1859).

1786.
Electrical discoveries of Galvani.
Publication of Burns' "Poems chiefly
in the Scottish Dialect."

1787.
Meeting of the Assembly of Notables in France.
Conflict of the French Crown with the Parliament of Paris.
Impeachment of Warren Hastings by the British
House of Commons.
Suppression of Shay's rebellion in Massachusetts.
Passage by the American Congress of the Ordinance for the
Government of the Northwest Territory.
Meeting of the Convention which framed the Federal
Constitution of the United States of America.
Birth of Archbishop Whately (d. 1863).
Birth of Guizot (d. 1874).

1788.
Second derangement of George III. of England.
Revolt in the Austrian provinces in the Netherlands.
State ratification and complete adoption of the Federal
Constitution of the United States of America.
Opening of the trial of Warren Hastings.
Establishment of an English settlement of convicts
at Botany Bay.
Publication of St. Pierre's "Paul and Virginia."
Birth of Sir Robert Peel (d. 1850).
Birth of Schopenhauer (d. 1860).
Birth of Lord Byron (d. 1824).
Birth of Sir William Hamilton (d. 1856).

1789.
Meeting of the States-General of France;
seizure of power by the Third Estate;
insurrection of Paris;
taking of the Bastille;
formation of the National Guard;
emigration of the nobles;
rising of the women;
escorting of the king to Paris;
appropriation of Church property.
War of the English in India with Tippoo Saib.
Organization of the Government of the United States of
America under its new Constitution,
with George Washington chosen President.
Erection, at Baltimore, of the first Roman Catholic
episcopal see in the United States.
Founding of the Tammany Society in New York.
Publication of White's "Natural History of Selborne."
Birth of James Fenimore Cooper (d. 1851).

1790.
Issue of French Assignats.
Feast of the Federation;
rise of the revolutionary clubs.
Death, in Austria, of the Emperor Joseph II., and
accession of Leopold II.

1791.
Flight and arrest of the French king at Varennes;
completion of the French Constitution and its acceptance
by the king;
tumult in the Champs de Mars;
dissolution of the Constituent National Assembly;
meeting of the Legislative Assembly;
appearance of the Girondins;
repeal in France of all enactments against the Jews.
Reformed Constitution for Poland suppressed by Russia.
Organization in Ireland of the Society of United Irishmen.
Passage of the Canadian Constitutional Act, dividing the
province into Upper and Lower Canada.
Incorporation of the first Bank of the United States;
report of Hamilton on manufactures;
adoption of the first ten Amendments to the Constitution
of the United States of America.
Insurrection of slaves in Hayti.
Separation of Kentucky from Virginia and admission to the
American Union as a State.
Publication of Boswell's "Life of Dr. Johnson,"
of Paine's "Rights of Man,"
of Burke's "Thoughts on French Affairs,"
and of Schiller's "Thirty Years War."
Birth of Faraday (d. 1867).
Birth of S. F. B. Morse (d. 1872).

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1792.
Declaration of war by France with Austria and Prussia;
dismissal of Girondin ministers;
mob attack on the Tuilleries and massacre of the Swiss;
deposition and imprisonment of the king;
seizure of power by the insurgent Commune of Paris;
strife of Jacobins and Girondins;
withdrawal of Lafayette from the country;
the September Massacres;
meeting of the National Convention;
proclamation of the Republic;
battle of Valmy;
annexation of Savoy and Nice;
trial of the king.
Death, in Austria, of the Emperor Leopold II.
Accession of Francis II.
Beginning of Pinel's reform in the treatment of the insane.
Re-election of George Washington,
President of the United States.
Birth of Shelley (d. 1822).
Birth of Cousin (d. 1867).

1793.
Execution of Louis XVI.;
declaration of war with England;
invasion of Holland;
formation of the Revolutionary Tribunal and the Committee
of Public Safety;
fall of the Girondins;
formation of the European Coalition;
revolt in La Vendée, and in Lyons, Toulon,
and other cities;
assassination of Marat;
beginning of the Reign of Terror;
execution of the queen, and the Girondins;
institution of the "worship of Reason";
the "Noyades" at Nantes.
Partial concession of rights to Catholics in Ire]and.
Second Partition of Poland.
Passage of the first Fugitive Slave Law by the
United States Congress.
Invention of the cotton-gin by Eli Whitney.
Emancipation of slaves proclaimed by the French in Hayti,
and alliance formed with the blacks, under Toussaint
L'Ouverture, against Spaniards and English.
Publication of Wordsworth's "An Evening Walk" and
"Descriptive Sketches."

1794.
Destruction of the Hébertists in France;
fall and death of Danton;
Feast of the Supreme Being;
conquest of the Austrian Netherlands;
climax of the Terror;
downfall and end of Robespierre and of the Jacobin Club;
reaction;
the White Terror;
subjugation of Holland;
Chouannerie in Brittany.
Whisky Insurrection in Pennsylvania.
Negotiation of the Jay Treaty between Great Britain
and the United States.
Decisive victory of General Wayne over the
Indians on the Maumee.
Publication of Fichte's "Wissenschaftslehre"
and of Goethe's "Reinecke Fuchs."
Birth of William Cullen Bryant (d. 1878).
Birth of Meyerbeer (d. 1864).

1795.
Suppression of insurrection by the Paris bourgeois;
adoption of the Constitution of the Year III.;
peace with Spain;
acquisition of Spanish San Domingo;
Austrian victory at Loana;
insurrection of the 13th Vendemiare put down by
Napoleon Bonaparte;
dissolution of the National Convention;
government of the Directory.
Formation of the Orange Society, in Ireland.
Third Partition of Poland.
Sale of the Western Reserve of Connecticut (in Ohio).
Publication of the first part of Goethe's
"Wilhelm Meister's Lehrjahre" and of Richter's "Hesperus."
Birth of Keats (d. 1821).
Birth of Carlyle (d. 1881).
Birth of Dr. Arnold (d. 1842).

1796.
Bonaparte sent to command in Italy;
submission of Sardinia;
expulsion of the Austrians from Lombardy;
formation of the Cispadane Republic.
Unsuccessful French expedition under Hoche to Ireland.
Death of Catherine II. of Russia and accession of Paul.
Publication of Washington's Farewell Address;
election of John Adams to the Presidency
of the United States.
Publication of Southey's "Joan of Arc" and
of Coleridge's first volume of "Poems."

1797.
Bonaparte's Treaty of Tolentino with the Pope;
his invasion of Austria;
peace preliminaries of Leoben;
overthrow and enslavement of Venice, delivered to Austria;
creation of the Ligurian and Cisalpine Republics.
Peace of Campo Formio;
revolutionary Coup d'Etat at Paris.
Difficulties between the American and the French republics.
Suspension of specie payments in England.
Mutiny of the British fleet.
British naval victories, of Cape Vincent, over the fleet of
Spain, and of Camperdown over that of Holland.
Birth of Schubert (d. 1828).
Birth of Joseph Henry [Uncertain date] (d. 1878).

1798.
French intrigues at Rome;
imprisonment of the Pope and formation of the Roman Republic.
Subjugation of Switzerland by the French, and formation of
the Helvetian Republic.
Expedition of Bonaparte to Egypt;
his seizure of Malta and expulsion of the Knights of St. John.
Destruction of the French fleet by Lord Nelson in the
battle of the Nile;
siege and conquest of Malta by Nelson.
Declaration of war against France by Turkey.
Expulsion of the king from Naples and creation of the
Parthenopeian Republic.
Suppressed rebellion in Ireland and imprisonment and
suicide of Wolfe Tone.
Publication in England of Jenner's work on Vaccination.
Passage of the Alien and Sedition Laws in the United States,
and adoption of the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.
Publication of the "Lyrical Ballads" of Wordsworth and
Coleridge, of Landor's "Gebir,"
of Schiller's "Wallenstein's Lager,"
and of Malthus' "Principles of Population."
Discovery that Heat is a mode of Motion, by Count Rumford.
Birth of Thomas Hood (d. 1845).
Birth of Comte (d. 1857).

1799.
Bonaparte's advance into Syria and repulse from Acre;
his victory at Aboukir.
The armies of Austria and Russia in Italy and Switzerland.
Expedition from England against Holland;
capture of the Dutch fleet.
Fall of the new republics in Italy.
Return of Bonaparte from Egypt;
overthrow of the Directory;
creation of the Consulate;
Bonaparte First Consul.
Gradual emancipation enacted in New York.
Invention of Volta's Pile.
Birth of Balzac (d. 1850).
Birth of Pushkin (d. 1837).

1800.
Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland.
Creation of the United Kingdom.
Bonaparte's Marengo campaign in Italy.
Moreau's victory at Hohenlinden.
Assassination of Kleber in Egypt.
Retrocession of Louisiana to France by Spain.
Convention of the United States with France from which
arose the French Spoliation Claims.
Election of Thomas Jefferson President of the United States.
Beginning of Robert Owen's social experiments at New Lanark.
Decomposition of water with the Voltaic pile,
by Nicholson and Carlisle.
Publication of Richter's "Titan,"
Birth of Moltke (d. 1891).
Birth of Macaulay (d. 1859).
Birth of Heine (d. 1856).

{3848}

Nineteenth Century.

1801.
Defection of the Russian czar, Paul, from the European
coalition, and his alliance with Napoleon.
Treaty of Luneville between Napoleon and the Emperor
Francis, and of Foligno between France and Naples.
Formation of the northern league of neutrals.
English bombardment of Copenhagen.
Murder of the czar, Paul, and accession, in Russia,
of Alexander I.
Surrender of the French army in Egypt to the English.
Concordat between Napoleon and the Pope.
Imposition by Napoleon of new constitutions on the Dutch
and Cisalpine republics.
Cession of Louisiana to France by Spain.
Resignation of Pitt from the British premiership;
formation of the Addington Ministry.
Passage of the first English Factory Act.
Appointment of John Marshall to be Chief Justice of the
Supreme Court of the United States.
Inauguration of Jefferson as President of the United States.
Opening of war by the United States with the pirates of Tripoli.
Independence of Hayti proclaimed by Toussaint L' Ouverture.
Birth of Farragut (d. 1870).

1802.
Peace of Amiens between England and France.
Voting of the First Consulate for life to Napoleon
by the French people;
his election to the presidency of the Cisalpine republic.
Subjection of Switzerland, and annexation of Piedmont,
Parma and Elba to France.
Complaints of Napoleon against the English press;
the Peltier trial.
Founding of the United States Military Academy at West Point.
Subjection of Hayti by the French and treacherous capture
of Toussaint L'Ouverture.
Founding of the Edinburgh Review.
Birth of Victor Hugo (d. 1885).
Birth of Kossuth (d. 1894).
Birth of Harriet Martineau (d. 1876).
Birth of Father Lacordaire (d. 1861).

1803.
Renewal of war between Great Britain and France;
detention of English in France.
Secularization of the spiritual principalities in Germany
and absorption of free cities.
Purchase of Louisiana by the United States from France.
Report to the Congress of the United States on the British
impressment of seamen from American ships.
Introduction of sheep-farming in Australia.
Defeat of the Mahrattas at Assaye and Argaum by Wellesley
(afterward Wellington).
The Emmet insurrection in Ireland.
Birth of Emerson (d. 1882).
Birth of Francis Deak (d. 1876).
Birth of Ericsson (d. 1889).

1804.
Napoleon's abduction and execution of the Due d'Enghien.
His elevation to the throne as emperor;
his coronation by the Pope.
Completion of the civil Code for France.
Return of Pitt to the head of government in England.
Federalist secession movement in the United States;
re-election of President Jefferson;
undertaking of the exploring journey of Lewis and Clark
across the American continent.
Death of Hamilton in duel with Burr.
Birth of Hawthorne (d. 1864).
Birth of Richard Cobden (d. 1865).
Birth of Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield (d. 1881).
Birth of George Sand (d. 1876).
Birth of Sainte-Beuve (d. 1869).

1805.
Bestowal of the crown of Italy on Napoleon;
formation of the third European Coalition against him;
his abortive plans for the invasion of England;
his extraordinary march to the Danube;
his capture of the army of Mack;
his occupation of Vienna;
his victory at Austerlitz.
Nelson's victory and death at Trafalgar.
Treaty of Presburg between France and Austria.
Creation of the kingdoms of Bavaria and Würtemberg and
the grand duchy of Baden.
Impeachment trial of Judge Chase in the United States.
Treaty of the United States with Tripoli,
ending the payment of tribute.
Publication of Scott's "Lay of the Last Minstrel."
Birth of Hans Christian Andersen (d. 1875).

1806.
Death of Pitt;
formation of the British Ministry of All the Talents;
death of Fox.
British Order in Council declaring a blockade of the
continental coast from Brest to the Elbe;
Napoleon's Berlin Decree declaring the British islands
under blockade and interdicting all intercourse with them.
Formation of the Confederation of the Rhine.
Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire;
resignation of its sovereignty by Francis II., and his
assumption thenceforth of the title of "Emperor of Austria."
Humiliation and oppression of Prussia by the French emperor;
the nation driven to war and subjugated at Jena.
Advance of the French into Poland;
war with Russia.
Dethronement of the Bourbon dynasty in Naples and bestowal
of the crown on Joseph Bonaparte.
Creation of the kingdom of Holland, with Louis Bonaparte
on the throne.
Acquisition of the Cape of Good Hope by England from the Dutch.
Filibustering scheme of Aaron Burr in the United States.
Publication of Coleridge's "Christabel."
Birth of John Stuart Mill (d. 1873).

1807.
British Order in Council, retaliating the Berlin Decree,
followed by the Milan Decree of Napoleon.
Battles of Eylau and Friedland between the French and
the Russians.
Meeting of Napoleon and Alexander I. of Russia on
the raft at Tilsit;
their public treaty and their secret agreements.
British bombardment of Copenhagen and seizure of
the Danish fleet.
Creation of the kingdom of Westphalia for Jerome Bonaparte.
Baron von Stein placed at the head of affairs in Prussia.
Delusive arrangement of Napoleon with the king of Spain
for the partition of Portugal;
occupation of Lisbon by the French;
flight of the royal family of Portugal to Brazil.
Passage of an Act of the British Parliament for the
suppression of the Slave-trade;
fall of the Ministry of All the Talents;
formation of the Portland Ministry.
Arrest and trial of Burr in the United States.
British outrage on the United States frigate Chesapeake;
passage of Embargo Act by the American Congress.
Abolition of the Slave-trade in the United States.
Deposition of the reforming sultan, Selim III.,
by the Turkish Janissaries;
elevation of his nephew Mustapha to the throne.
First publication of Dalton's Atomic theory of Chemistry.
First trips of Fulton's steamboat "Clermont."
Birth of Longfellow (d. 1882).
Birth of Garibaldi (d. 1882).

1808.
Erfurt conference and treaty of Napoleon and the Czar.
Formation of the Tugendbund in Germany;
Fichte's addresses on the state of that country.
Napoleon's crime against Spain;
knavish acquisition of the throne for his brother Joseph;
the Spanish national revolt;
English troops in the peninsula;
Napoleon's crushing campaign.
Opening of the French siege of Saragossa.
Transfer of the crown of Naples from
Joseph Bonaparte to Murat;
appearance of the Carbonari.
Conquest of Finland by Russia from Sweden.
Murder of the deposed Turkish sultan, Selim III., and
repeated revolutions at Constantinople.
Election of James Madison President of the United States.
Founding of the Quarterly Review.
Birth of Mazzini (d. 1872).
Birth of General Robert E. Lee (d. 1870).

{3849}

1809.
Renewal of war between Austria and France;
revolt in the Tyrol;
Napoleon again in Vienna;
his defeat at Aspern and victory at Wagram;
arrangement of peace by the Treaty of Schonbrunn, taking
an enormous territory from the Austrian empire.
Sir John Moore's advance in Spain;
his retreat and death;
fall of Saragossa.
Wellington (then Sir Arthur Wellesley) in command
of the British forces in the Peninsula;
his passage of the Douro and battle of Talavera;
his retreat into Portugal and construction of the Lines
of Torres Vedras.
The British Walcheren expedition.
Inauguration of President Madison, in the United States;
substitution of Non-intercourse for the Embargo.
Publication of Byron's "English Bards and Scotch Reviewers."
Birth of Abraham Lincoln (d. 1865).
Birth of Gladstone.
Birth of Charles Darwin (d. 1882).
Birth of Tennyson (d. 1892).
Birth of Elizabeth Barrett (Mrs. Browning) (d. 1861).
Birth of Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes, (d. 1894).
Birth of Mendelssohn (d. 1847).

1810.
Abdication of the throne of Holland by Louis Bonaparte.
Annexation of Holland, the Hansa towns and the Swiss Valais
to France
Suppression of the Tyrolese revolt and
execution of Andrew Hofer.
Napoleon's divorce from Josephine and marriage to the
arch-duchess Maria Louisa of Austria.
Massena's defeat at Busaco;
his recoil from the Lines of Torres Vedras.
Unceasing guerilla war in Spain.
Final insanity of George III. of England.
Revolution in Buenos Ayres and Chile, establishing
complete separation from Spain.
Election of Bernadotte to be Crown Prince of Sweden
and successor to the throne.
Founding of the University of Berlin.
Birth of Cavour (d. 1861).
Birth of Freiligrath (d. 1876).
Birth of William Henry Channing (d. 1883).

1811.
Defeat of Massena at Fuentes de Onoro.
Regency of the Prince of Wales instituted in Great Britain.
War in the United States against the Indian chief
Tecumseh and his league.
Declaration of the independence of Venezuela.
Treacherous destruction of the Mamelukes in Egypt
by Mehemet Ali.
Birth of Thackeray (d. 1863).
Birth of John Bright (d. 1889).
Birth of Lord Lawrence (d. 1879).
Birth of Edgar A. Poe (d. 1849).

1812.
Rupture of Napoleon with the czar;
his invasion of Russia;
battles of Smolensk and Borodino;
advance to Moscow and occupation of the city;
burning of Moscow and disastrous retreat of the French.
Wellington's victory at Salamanca and entry into Madrid;
his retreat into Portugal.
Establishment of a Constitution in Spain.
Assassination of Mr. Perceval, prime minister of England;
formation of the Ministry of Lord Liverpool.
Declaration of war by the United States
against Great Britain;
opposition of Federalists;
surrender of Hull at Detroit;
battle of Queenstown Heights;
naval victories by the U. S. frigates Constitution and
United States.
Re-election of President Madison.
Admission of the state of Louisiana to the American Union.
Appalling earthquake at Caraccas.
Publication of the first and second cantos of
Byron's "Childe Harold."
Publication of "Kinder und Haus-Märchen" by
the brothers Grimm.
Birth of Dickens (d. 1870).
Birth of Robert Browning (d. 1889).

1813.
The War of Liberation In Germany;
Austria and Great Britain in a renewed Coalition;
battles of Lützen, Bautzen, Kulm, Gross-Beeren, the
Katzbach, Dennewitz, Leipsic (Battle of the Nations), Hanau;
retreat of Napoleon beyond the Rhine.
Fall of the kingdom of Westphalia.
Wellington's victory at Vittoria;
expulsion of the French from Spain;
restoration of Ferdinand VII. to the throne.
Recovery of independence by Holland.
Luddite riots in England.
Naval battle of Lake Erie In the war between England and
the United States;
defeat and death of Tecumseh;
burning of Toronto;
American expedition against Montreal;
British surprise of Fort Niagara and burning of Buffalo;
outbreak of the Creek Indians.
Publication of Shelley's "Queen Mab."
Birth of Henry Ward Beecher (d. 1887).
Birth of Richard Wagner (d. 1883).

1814.
Desertion of Napoleon by Murat.
Invasion of France by the Allies;
Napoleon's unsuccessful campaign of defense;
surrender of Paris;
abdication of the fallen emperor;
treaty of Fontainebleau;
retirement of Napoleon to Elba;
return of the Bourbons to the throne of France,
in the person of Louis XVIII.
Treaty of Paris.
Battle of Toulouse, ending the Peninsular War.
Meeting of the Congress of Vienna.
Return of Pope Pius VII. to Rome;
restoration of the Jesuits.
Union of Belgium and Holland in the
Kingdom of the Netherlands.
Union of Norway and Sweden.
Abrogation in Spain of the Constitution of 1812
by Ferdinand;
abolition of the Cortès;
re-establishment of the Inquisition.
Restoration of Austrian despotism in Northern Italy.
Battles of Chippewa and Lundy's Lane, siege of Fort Erie,
British capture of Washington, and naval fight on Lake
Champlain, in the war between England and the United States;
Hartford Convention of Federalists opposed to the war;
treaty of peace negotiated at Ghent.
Temporary recovery of Chile by the Spaniards.
Dictatorship of Dr. Francia established in Paraguay.
Building of the first locomotive of George Stephenson.
Publication of Scott's "Waverley."
Birth of Motley (d. 1877).
Birth of Edwin M. Stanton (d. 1869).

1815.
Return of Napoleon from Elba;
flight of Louis XVIII;
the Hundred Days of restored Empire;
the Waterloo campaign and end of the Corsican's career;
his final abdication, surrender to the English,
and captivity at St. Helena.
Second Bourbon restoration and second Treaty of Paris.
Execution of Marshal Ney.
Formation of the Holy Alliance.
Reconstruction of Germany;
formation of the Germanic Confederation.
Fall and death of Murat.
Establishment of the protectorate of Great Britain over
the Ionian Islands.
Enactment of the British Corn Law, to maintain high prices
for bread-stuffs.
Repulse of the British at New Orleans by General Jackson.
War of the United States with the Dey of Algiers.
Birth of Bismarck.

1816.
Agitation for Parliamentary Reform;
multiplication of Hampden Clubs.
Admission of Indiana into the American Union.
Charter granted to the second Bank of the United States.
Election of James Monroe President of the United States.
Bombardment of Algiers by Lord Exmouth.
First Seminole War.
Publication of Bryant's "Thanatopsis."

{3850}

1817.
Rioting in England;
march of the Blanketeers from Manchester.
Inauguration of James Monroe,
President of the United states.
Admission of Mississippi to the American Union.
Formation of the Burschenschaft in Germany.
Birth of Theodor Mommsen.

1818.
Complete establishment of Chilean independence.
General Jackson's invasion of Florida.
Publication of Irving's "Sketch Book."

1819.
"Peterloo Massacre" at Manchester, England.
Assassination of Kotzebue by the student, Sand.
Admission of Alabama to the American Union as a state.
First voyage across the Atlantic by a vessel
(the "Savannah ") using steam.
Discovery of Electro-magnetism, by Oersted.
Complete attainment of independence in Venezuela and
New Granada, under the lead of Bolivar.
Publication of Schopenhauer's
"Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung."
Birth of Marian Evans (George Eliot) (d. 1880).
Birth of Charles Kingsley (d. 1875).
Birth of James Russell Lowell (d. 1891).

1820.
Death of George III. of England;
accession of George IV.;
trial of Queen Caroline.
Adoption in the United States of the Missouri Compromise,
excluding slavery from the territories
north of latitude 36° 30';
admission of Maine to the Union.
Re-election of Monroe to the American presidency.
Assassination of the duke of Berry in France.
Revolution in Spain, restoring the constitution of 1812.
Revolution in Portugal,
instituting a constitutional government.
Revolution in Naples and Sicily, extorting a constitution
from the king.
Congress of sovereigns of the Holy Alliance at Laybach.
Publication of Keats' "Lamia," "Isabella,"
"Eve of St. Agnes," "Hyperion."
Birth of General Sherman (d. 1891).
Birth of Professor Tyndall (d. 1893).

1821.
Revolution in Mexico, establishing independence.
Liberation of Peru by San Martin and the Chileans.
Return of King John VI. from Brazil to Portugal.
Union of Venezuela, New Granada and Ecuador in the
Republic of Colombia.
Cession of Florida to the United States by Spain.
Admission of Missouri to the American Union.
Revolt in Greece against the rule of the Turks.
Suppression of the constitutional movement in the Two
Sicilies by Austrian arms acting for the Holy Alliance.
Constitutional rising in Piedmont;
abdication of Victor Emmanuel I. in favor of his
brother Charles Felix;
interference of Austria;
suppression of the revolution.
Publication of De Quincey's "Confessions of an Opium Eater,"
and Cooper's "The Spy."
Birth of Jenny Lind (d. 1887).

1822.
Meeting of the Congress of Verona.
Canning made foreign Secretary in the British Government.
Proclamation of the independence of Brazil;
Dom Pedro crowned emperor.
Pronunciamento in Mexico, making Iturbide emperor.
Turkish massacre of the Greeks of Chios.
Publication of Lamb's "Essays of Elia," Heine's "Gedichte,"
and Wilson's "Noctes Ambrosianæ."
Birth of General Grant (d. 1885).
Birth of Matthew Arnold (d. 1888).
Birth of Pasteur.
Birth of Rosa Bonheur.

1823.
Enunciation of the "Monroe Doctrine," in the annual message
of the President of the United States.
Death of Marco Bozzaris, hero of the Greek insurrection.
Fall of Iturbide In Mexico;
establishment of a republic.
Intervention of France in Spain and overthrow
of the Constitution.
Birth of Renan (d. 1892).

1824-.
Presidential election in the United States,
resulting in no choice by the popular vote;
election of John Quincy Adams by the House of Representatives.
Visit of Lafayette to the United States.
Death of Louis XVIII., the restored king of France,
and accession of Charles X.
Death of Lord Byron in Greece.
The first Anglo-Burmese war.
Formation of the Catholic Association in Ireland.
Decisive battle of Ayacucho,
securing the independence of Brazil.
Founding of the Westminster Review.
Birth of Stonewall Jackson (d. 1863).
Birth of George W. Curtis (d. 1892).

1825.
Opening of the Stockton and Darlington Railway in
England—the first undertaking for the conveyance of
passengers and goods by steam locomotion.
Opening of the Erie Canal, from Lake Erie to
the Hudson River.
Publication of De Vigny's "Cinq Mars," Cooper's "Last
of the Mohicans," and Heine's "Reisebilder."
Birth of Huxley.

1826.
Abduction of William Morgan and Anti-Masonic
excitement in New York.
Meeting of the Congress of Panama.
Creation of the republic of Bolivia in Upper Peru.
Insurrection and destruction of the Turkish Janissaries.

1827.
Canning's brief premiership in England and sudden death.
Intervention of Russia, England and France
in favor of the Greeks;
battle of Navarino and destruction of the Turkish fleet;
national independence of Greece established.
Extinction of slavery in the state of New r York.
Publication of Hallam's "Constitutional History of England,"
Keble's "Christian Year," and Alfred and Charles Tennyson's
"Poems by Two Brothers."

1828.
Formation of the Ministry of the duke of Wellington
in Great Britain.
Removal of political disabilities from Dissenters in England.
Election of General Andrew Jackson President of
the United States.
Beginning of the construction of the
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad.
Russo-Turkish war;
siege and capture of Varna by the Russians.
Birth of Taine (d. 1893).

1829.
Inauguration of President Jackson;
introduction of the "Spoils System"
in American national politics.
Acknowledgment of Greek independence by the Porte.
Passage by the British Parliament of the
Catholic Emancipation Act for Ireland.
Abolition of slavery in Mexico.
Ending of the Russo-Turkish war by the Treaty of Hadrianople.

1830.
Death, in England, of George IV.;
accession of William IV.;
opening of the final agitation for Parliamentary Reform;
resignation of the Wellington Ministry, succeeded by that
of Earl Grey.
Debate between Webster and Hayne in the United States Senate.
French conquest of Algiers.
Revolution in Paris;
flight of Charles X.;
elevation of Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, to the throne.
Revolt in Poland.
Recognition of the autonomy of Servia by the Ottoman Porte.
Constitution of the Kingdom of Greece, with Prince Otho
of Bavaria on the throne.
Belgian revolt and separation from Holland.
Publication of the "Book of Mormon" at Palmyra, N. Y.
Publication of the first part of Comte's
"Cours de Philosophie."

{3851}

1831.
Introduction in the British Parliament and defeat of the
first ministerial bill for Parliamentary Reform;
dissolution of Parliament and appeal to the people.
Assumption of the name Conservatives by the English Tories.
Nat Turner's slave-rising in Virginia.
First publication of William Lloyd Garrison's anti-slavery
paper, "The Liberator."
Forced abdication of Dom Pedro I. in Brazil;
accession of Dom Pedro II.
Founding of the system of National Schools in Ireland.
Revolt in the Papal States and in Modena and Parma
suppressed by Austrian troops;
exile of Mazzini from Italy.
Creation of the Kingdom of Belgium, Prince Leopold of
Saxe Coburg king.
Rebellion of Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, against the Porte.
Discovery of Magneto-electricity, by Faraday.
Publication of Poe's "The Raven."
Birth of General Sheridan (d. 1888).

1832.
Passage by the British Parliament of the bill to
Reform the Representation.
Passage of the Nullification Ordinance of South Carolina;
proclamation of President Jackson against the nullification
movement;
re-election of President Jackson.
The Indian war in America, called the Black Hawk War.
Resistance of Holland to the separation of Belgium;
bombardment of Antwerp by the French and English.
Merciless suppression of the Polish rebellion.
Civil war in Portugal.
Birth of Castelar.

1833.
Compensated emancipation of slaves in the
British West Indies.
Passage of the Compromise Tariff Bill in the United States;
removal of government deposits from the United States
Bank by President Jackson.
Beginning of the revolt of Abd-el-Kader against the French
in Algiers.
Election of Santa Anna to the Presidency of Mexico.
Death of Ferdinand VII. of Spain;
regency of Maria Christina;
insurgent proclamation of Don Carlos;
beginning of the civil war between Carlists and Christinos.
First Prussian treaty which formed the German Zollverein.
Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi between Russia and Turkey.
Publication of Carlyle's "Sartus Resartus," and
Faraday's "Experimental Researches in Electricity."
Birth of General Gordon (d. 1885).

1834.
Resignation of Earl Grey from the premiership in the
English Ministry, succeeded first by Lord Melbourne and
after a brief interval by Sir Robert Peel.
Abolition of slavery in the British colonies.
Organization of the Whig party in the United States.
End of civil war in Portugal.
Publication of Dickens' "Sketches by Boz," and
Balzac's "Père Goriot."

1835.
Recall of Lord Melbourne to the English Ministry, and
retirement of Peel.
Exclusion of anti-slavery literature from the
United States mails;
passage of the act against anti-slavery petitions called
the "Atherton Gag."
Beginning of the second Seminole War.
Death of the Emperor Francis of Austria and accession
of Ferdinand I.
Publication of Browning's" Paracelsus," Thirlwall's
"History of Greece," Strauss's" Das Leben Jesu," and
De Tocqueville's "La Democratie en Amerique."

1836.
Election of Martin Van Buren President of the United States.
Admission of Arkansas to the American Union.
Texan independence of Mexico declared and won at San Jacinto.
First futile attempt of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte to effect
a revolution in France.
Publication of Dickens' "Pickwick."

1837.
Death of William IV. of England, and
accession of Queen Victoria.
Great commercial collapse In the United States;
Introduction of the sub-treasury system.
Founding of Melbourne in Australia.
Outbreak of the rebellion in Canada called
"the Patriot War."
Publication of Carlyle's" French Revolution,"
and Thackeray's "Yellowplush Papers."
Birth of Grover Cleveland.
Birth of Swinburne.

1838.
Beginning of the Chartist agitation in England.
Interference of England in affairs of Afghanistan.
The burning of the "Caroline" in Niagara river;
suppression of the Canadian rebellion.
Beginning of practically successful steam navigation
on the ocean.
Beginning of Cobden's agitation for the repeal of the
English Corn Laws.

1839.
Resignation of Lord Melbourne from the Government in England;
wreck of Peel's Ministry on the "Bedchamber Question";
return of Melbourne to office.
Invasion of Afghanistan by British forces and
dethronement of Dost Mahomed.
Daguerre's discoveries in photography.

1840.
Marriage of Queen Victoria of England to
Prince Albert of Saxe Coburg.
Adoption of Penny Postage in England.
Election of General William Henry Harrison
President of the United States;
the "Log-cabin and Hard-cider campaign."
Settlement of the Mormons at Nauvoo.
Second revolutionary attempt of
Louis Napoleon Bonaparte in France;
his imprisonment at Ham.
Reunion of Upper and Lower Canada.
Opium War of England with China.
Quadruple alliance for the settlement
of the Egyptian question;
British bombardment of Alexandria;
hereditary possession of the pashalik of Egypt secured
to Mehemet Ali.

1841.
Fall of the Melbourne Ministry in England;
Peel made Prime Minister.
Death of President Harrison;
advancement of Vice President John Tyler to the
Presidency of the United States;
his breach with the Whig party.
Revolt in Afghanistan;
frightful retreat and destruction of the British.
Founding of the Brook Farm Association in Massachusetts.
Birth of the Prince of Wales.

1842.
Negotiation of the Ashburton Treaty between Great Britain and
the United States, settling the northeastern boundary question.
Return of British forces to Cabul, Afghanistan.
End of the Opium War;
treaty of peace between England and China.
The Dorr Rebellion in Rhode Island.

1843.
Disruption of the Church of Scotland.
Publication of Ruskin's "Modern Painters."

1844.
Election of James K. Polk President of the United States.
Completion, between Washington and Baltimore, of the first
line of electric telegraph, under the direction of Prof.
Morse.
Passage of the English Bank Charter Act.
Murder of Joe Smith, the founder of Mormonism, by a mob.
Publication of Dumas' "Trois Mousquetaires."

{3852}

1845.
Annexation of Texas to the American Union;
splitting of the Democratic party of the United States into
Hunkers and Barnburners, or Hard-Shells and Soft-Shells.
Beginning of the war of the English with the Sikhs.
Arctic expedition of Sir John Franklin from which he never
returned.
Publication of Carlyle's "Cromwell's Letters and Speeches,"
and Hawthorne's "Mosses from an Old Manse."

1846.
Repeal of the British Corn Laws.
The Potato Famine in Ireland.
War of the United States with Mexico;
defeat in the United States Senate of the "Wilmot Proviso,"
to exclude slavery from territory about to be acquired
from Mexico;
American conquest of California;
migration of the Mormons from Nauvoo to Great Salt Lake.
Settlement of the Oregon boundary dispute.
Adams' and Le Verrier's discovery of the planet Neptune
by mathematical calculation.
Patenting of the Sewing-machine by Elias Howe.
End of resistance to the French in Algiers;
surrender and imprisonment of Abd-el-Kader.
Publication of the first volume of Grote's
"History of Greece."

1847.
Successful campaign of General Scott in Mexico.
Civil war in Switzerland;
suppression of the Sonderbund.
Death of Daniel O'Connell.
Publication of Charlotte Bronte's "Jane Eyre," the first
part of Thackeray's "Vanity Fair,"
and Longfellow's "Evangeline."
Birth of Edison.

1848.
Revolution in France:
abdication and flight of the king;
creation of the National Workshops;
insurrection of the workmen, suppressed by General Cavaignac;
organization of the Second Republic,
Louis Napoleon Bonaparte President.
Revolutionary movement in Germany:
rioting in Berlin;
meeting of National Assembly at Frankfort;
election of Archduke John of Austria to be
Administrator of Germany;
forcible dispersion of the Prussian National Assembly.
Revolutionary risings in Austria and Hungary:
bombardment of Prague and Vienna;
abdication of the Emperor Ferdinand and accession of
Francis Joseph.
Revolutionary movements in Italy:
Neapolitan insurrection crushed by King Ferdinand II.;
expulsion of Austrians from Milan and Venice;
undertaking of Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, to support
and head the revolution, and his defeat by the Austrian
general Radetzky;
ineffectual concessions of Pope Pius IX. to the Romans;
his flight to Gaeta;
expulsion of the dukes of Modena and Parma and extortion
of a constitution from the grand-duke of Tuscany.
Suppression of the "Young Ireland" rebellion.
Schleswig-Holstein war in Denmark.
Revision of the constitution of the Swiss Confederation.
Last demonstration of the Chartists in England.
Organization of the Free Soil party of the United States
in convention at Buffalo;
election, by the Whigs, of General Zachary Taylor President
of the United States.
Treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo between the United States and
Mexico;
purchase and cession of New Mexico and California to the
United States;
discovery of gold in California;
admission of Wisconsin to the American Union.
Publication of the first two volumes of Macaulay's
"History of England."
Birth of Arthur J. Balfour.

1849.
Framing of a constitution for a new Empire of Germany by
the National Assembly at Frankfort;
offer of the imperial crown to the king of Prussia and
its refusal;
failure of the work of the Assembly and end of the
revolutionary movement in Germany.
Declaration of Hungarian independence and formation of the
Hungarian Republic, with Louis Kossuth for its President;
interference of Russia to aid the Austrians in suppressing
the Magyar revolt;
surrender of Görgei;
escape of Kossuth and other leaders into Turkey.
Renewed attempt of Charles Albert of Sardinia against the
Austrians in Lombardy and his crushing defeat at Mortara
and Novara;
his resignation of the crown in favor of his son,
Victor Emmanuel II.;
siege and subjugation of Venice by Haynau.
End of the Schleswig-Holstein war.
Annexation of the Punjab to British India.
Repeal of the English Navigation Laws.
First explorations of Dr. Livingstone in Africa.
Determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat, by Joule.
Publication of the first part of Dickens'
"David Copperfield," Kingsley's "Alton Locke," and
Emerson's "Representative Men."
Sainte-Beuve's "Causerie du Lundi" begun
in the "Constitutionel."

1850.
Death of General Taylor, President of the United States,
and succession of the Vice President, Millard Fillmore;
slavery agitation on the question of the admission of
California;
Clay's Compromise measures;
Webster's Seventh of March Speech;
Seward's Higher Law Speech;
the Omnibus Bill;
passage of the Fugitive Slave Law.
Negotiation of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty between the
United States and Great Britain.
Restoration of the Roman episcopate in England.
Publication of Mrs. Browning's "Sonnets from the Portuguese,"
and Tennyson's "In Memoriam."