Chapter IV: , VII (110)

"From a variety of considerations, the writer is persuaded
that one of the best introductions to history that can be
given in American high schools, and even in those of lower
grade, is through a study of the community in which the school
is placed. History, like charity, begins at home. The best
American citizens are those who mind home affairs and local
interest. 'That man's the best cosmopolite who loves his
native country best.' The best students of universal history
are those who know some one country or some one subject well.
The family, the hamlet, the neighborhood, the community, the
parish, the village, town, city, county, and state are
historically the ways by which men have approached national
and international life. It was a preliminary study of the
geography of Frankfort-on-the-Main that led Carl Ritter to
study the physical structure of Europe and Asia, and thus to
establish the new science of comparative geography. He says:
'Whoever has wandered through the valleys and woods, and over
the hills and mountains of his own state, will be the one
capable of following a Herodotus in his wanderings over the
globe.' And we may say, as Ritter said of the science of
geography, the first step in history is to know thoroughly the
district where we live. … American local history should be
studied as a contribution to national history. This country
will yet be viewed and reviewed as an organism of historic
growth, developing from minute germs, from the very protoplasm
of state life. And some day this country will be studied in
its international relations, as an organic part of a larger
organism now vaguely called the World State, but as surely
developing through the operation of economic, legal, social,
and scientific forces as the American Union, the German and
British Empires are evolving into higher forms. American
history in its widest relations is not to be written by any
one man nor by anyone generation of men. Our history will grow
with the nation and with its developing consciousness of
internationality. The present possibilities for the real
progress of historic and economic science lie, first and
foremost, in the development of a generation of economists and
practical historians, who realize that history is past
politics and politics present history; secondly, in the
expansion of the local consciousness into a fuller sense of
its historic worth and dignity, of the cosmopolitan relations
of modern local life, and of its wholesome conservative power
in these days of growing centralization. National and
international life can best develop upon the constitutional
basis of local self-government in church and state. … If
young Americans are to appreciate their religious and
political inheritance, they must learn its intrinsic worth.
They must be taught to appreciate the common and lowly things
around them. They should grow up with as profound respect for
town and parish meetings as for the State legislature, not to
speak of the Houses of Congress. They should recognize the
majesty of the law, even in the parish constable as well as
the high sheriff of the country. They should look on selectmen
as the head men of the town, the survival of the old English
reeve and four best men of the parish. They should be taught
to see in the town common or village green a survival of that
primitive institution of land-community upon which town and
state are based. They should be taught the meaning of town and
family names; how the word 'town' means, primarily, a place
hedged in for the purposes of defence; how the picket-fences
around home and house-lot are but a survival of the primitive
town idea; how home, hamlet, and town live on together in a
name like Hampton, or Home-town. They should investigate the
most ordinary thing for these are often the most archaic. …
It would certainly be an excellent thing for the development
of historical science in America if teachers in our public
schools would cultivate the historical spirit in their pupils
with special reference to the local environment. … A
multitude of historical associations gather around every old
town and hamlet in the land. There are local legends and
traditions, household tales, stories told by grandfathers and
grandmothers, incidents remembered by 'the oldest
inhabitants.' But above all in importance are the old
documents and manuscript records of the first settlers, the
early pioneers, the founders of our towns. Here are sources of
information more authentic than tradition, and yet often
entirely neglected. … In order to study history it is not
necessary to begin with dead men's bones, with Theban
dynasties, the kings of Assyria, the royal families of Europe,
or even with the presidents of the United States. These
subjects have their importance in certain connections, but for
beginners in history there are perhaps other subjects of
greater interest and vitality.
{1656}
The most natural entrance to a knowledge of the history of the
world is from a local environment through widening circles of
interest, until, from the rising ground of the present, the
broad horizon of the past comes clearly into view. … A study
of the community in which the student dwells will serve to
connect that community not only with the origin and growth of
the State and Nation, but with the mother-country, with the
German fatherland, with village communities throughout the
Aryan world,—from Germany and Russia to old Greece and Rome;
from these classic lands to Persia and India."

_H. B. Adams,
Methods of Historical Study
(Johns Hopkins University Studies, Second Series, 1-2),
pages 16-21._

----------HISTORY: Start--------

HITCHITIS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.

HITTIN, Battle of (1187).

See JERUSALEM: A. D. 1149-1187.

HITTITES, The.

The Hittites mentioned in the Bible were known as the Khita or
Khatta to the Egyptians, with whom they were often at war.
Recent discoveries indicate that they formed a more civilized
and powerful nation and played a more important part in the
early history of Western Asia than was previously supposed.
Many inscriptions and rock sculptures in Asia Minor and Syria
which were formerly inexplicable are now attributed to the
Hittites. The inscriptions have not yet been deciphered, but
scholars are confident that the key to their secret will be
found. The two chief cities of the Hittites were Kadesh on the
Orontes and Carchemish on the Euphrates; so that their seat of
empire was in northern Syria, but their power was felt from
the extremity of Asia Minor to the confines of Egypt. It is
conjectured that these people were originally from the
Caucasus. "Their descendants," says Professor Sayee, "are
still to be met with in the defiles of the Taurus and on the
plateau of Kappadokia, though they have utterly forgotten the
language or languages their forefathers spoke. What that
language was is still uncertain, though the Hittite proper
names which occur on the monuments of Egypt and Assyria show
that it was neither Semitic nor Indo-European."

_A. H. Sayee,
Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments,
chapter 5._

"We may … rest satisfied with the conclusion that the
existence of a Hittite empire extending into Asia Minor is
certified, not only by the records of ancient Egypt, but also
by Hittite monuments which still exist. In the days of Ramses
II., when the children of Israel were groaning under the tasks
allotted to them, the enemies of their oppressors were already
exercising a power and a domination which rivalled that of
Egypt. The Egyptian monarch soon learned to his cost that the
Hittite prince was as 'great' a king as himself, and could
summon to his aid the inhabitants of the unknown north.
Pharaoh's claim to sovereignty was disputed by adversaries as
powerful as the ruler of Egypt, if indeed not more powerful,
and there was always a refuge among them for those who were
oppressed by the Egyptian king. When, however, we speak of a
Hittite empire, we must understand clearly what that means. It
was not an empire like that of Rome, where the subject
provinces were consolidated together under a central
authority, obeying the same laws and the same supreme head. It
was not an empire like that of the Persians, or of the
Assyrian successors of Tiglath-pileser III., which represented
the organised union of numerous states and nations under a
single ruler. … Before the days of Tiglath-pileser, in fact,
empire in Western Asia meant the power of a prince to force a
foreign people to submit to his rule. The conquered provinces
had to be subdued again and again; but as long as this could
be done, as long as the native struggles for freedom could be
crushed by a campaign, so long did the empire exist. It was an
empire of this sort that the Hittites established in Asia
Minor. How long it lasted we cannot say. But so long as the
distant races of the West answered the summons to war of the
Hittite princes, it remained a reality. The fact that the
tribes of the Troad and Lydia are found fighting under the
command of the Hittite kings of Kadesh, proves that they
acknowledged the supremacy of their Hittite lords, and
followed them to battle like the vassals of some feudal chief.
If Hittite armies had not marched to the shores of the Ægean,
and Hittite princes been able from time to time to exact
homage from the nations of the far west, Egypt would not have
had to contend against the populations of Asia Minor in its
wars with the Hittites, and the figures of Hittite warriors
would not have been sculptured on the rocks of Karabel. There
was a time when the Hittite name was feared as far as the
western extremity of Asia Minor, and when Hittite satraps had
their seat in the future capital of Lydia. Traditions of this
period lingered on into classical days."

_A. H. Sayee,
The Hittites,
chapter 4._

ALSO IN:
_W. Wright,
The Empire of the Hittites._

See, also,
AMORITES; and ITALY, ANCIENT: EARLY ITALIANS.

HIVITES, The.

The "Midlanders," who dwelt in the middle of Canaan when the
Israelites invaded it.

See AMALEKITES.

HLÆFDIGE.

See LADY.

HLAFORD.

See LORD.

HLUDWIG.

See LOUIS.

HOARD. HORDERE.

See STALLER.

HOBKIRK'S HILL, Battle of (1781).

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1780-1781.

HOCHE, Campaigns of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JULY-DECEMBER),
PROGRESS OF THE WAR; 1794-1796; 1796-1797 (OCTOBER-APRIL).

HOCHELAGA.

The name of an Indian village found by Cartier on the site of
the present city of Montreal. An extensive region of
surrounding country seems to have likewise borne the name
Hochelaga, and Cartier calls the river St. Lawrence "the river
of Hochelaga," or "the great river of Canada."

See AMERICA: A. D. 1534-1535,
and CANADA: NAMES.

HOCHHEIM, The storming of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).

HOCHKIRCH, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1758.

HÖCHST, Battle of (1622).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1621-1623.

----------HOCHSTADT: Start--------

HOCHSTADT, Battle of (1704).

The great battle which English historians name from the
village of Blenheim, is named by the French from the
neighboring town of Hochstadt.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1704.

HOCHSTADT: Battle of (1800).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1800-1801 (MAY-FEBRUARY).

----------HOCHSTADT: End--------

{1657}

HODEIBIA, Truce of.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 609-632.

HOFER, Andrew, and the Tyrolese revolt.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1809-1810 (APRIL-FEBRUARY).

HOHENFRIEDBERG, Battle of (1745).

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1744-1745.

HOHENLINDEN, Battle of (1800).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1800-1801 (MAY-FEBRUARY).

HOHENSTAUFEN OR SUABIAN FAMILY, The.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1138-1268;
and ITALY: A. D. 1154-1162, to A. D. 1183-1250.

HOHENZOLLERN:
Rise of the House of.

"Hohenzollern lies far south in Schwaben (Suabia), on the
sunward slope of the Rauhe-Alp Country; no great way north
from Constance and its Lake; but well aloft, near the springs
of the Danube; its back leaning on the Black Forest; it is
perhaps definable as the southern summit of that same huge old
Hercynian Wood, which is still called the Schwarzwald (Black
Forest), though now comparatively bare of trees. Fanciful
Dryasdust, doing a little etymology, will tell you the name
'Zollern' is equivalent to 'Tollery' or Place of Tolls.
Whereby Hohenzollern' comes to mean the 'High' or Upper
'Tollery';—and gives one the notion of antique pedlars
climbing painfully, out of Italy and the Swiss valleys, thus
far; unstrapping their packhorses here, and chaffering in
unknown dialect about 'toll.' Poor souls;—it may be so, but
we do not know, nor shall it concern us. This only is known:
That a human kindred, probably of some talent for coercing
anarchy and guiding mankind, had, centuries ago, built its
'Burg' there, and done that function in a small but creditable
way ever since."

_T. Carlyle,
Frederick the Great,
book 2, chapter 5._

"The title, Count of Zollern, was conferred by Henry IV. in
the eleventh century. … In 1190 Henry VI. appointed the
Count of Zollern to the imperial office of Burgrave of
Nuremberg. By fortunate marriages and prudent purchases, his
descendants, who retained the office, gradually acquired
extensive estates in Franconia, Moravia, and Burgundy, and
their wisdom and growing power steadily increased their weight
in the councils of the German princes. … Frederick VI. was
enriched by Sigismund with large gifts of money, and was made
his deputy in Brandenburg in 1411. The marches were in utter
confusion, under the feuds and ravages of the unrestrained
knighthood. Frederick reduced them to order, and at the
Council of Constance, in 1417, received from Sigismund the
margraviate of Brandenburg with the dignity of Elector."

_C. T. Lewis,
History of Germany,
book 3, chapter 12, section 1._

See BRANDENBURG: A. D. 1168-1417.

HOHENZOLLERN INCIDENT, The.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870 (JUNE-JULY).

----------HOLLAND: Start--------

HOLLAND:
The country and its Name.

See NETHERLANDS.

HOLLAND: A. D. 1430.
Absorbed in the dominions of the House of Burgundy.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1417-1430.

HOLLAND: A. D. 1477.
The "Great Privilege" granted by Mary of Burgundy.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1477.

HOLLAND: A. D. 1488-1491.
The Bread and Cheese War.
End of the Party of the Hooks.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1482-1493.

HOLLAND: A. D. 1494.
The Great Privilege disputed by Philip the Handsome.
Friesland detached.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1494-1519.

HOLLAND: A. D. 1506-1609.
The Austro-Spanish tyranny.
Revolt and independence of the United Provinces.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1494-1519, to 1594-1609.

HOLLAND: A. D. 1651-1660.
Supremacy in the Republic of the United Provinces.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1651-1660.

HOLLAND: A. D. 1665-1747.
Wars with England and France.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1665-1666.

HOLLAND: A. D. 1746.
The restored Stadtholdership.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1746-1787.

HOLLAND: A. D. 1793-1810.
French invasion and conquest.
The Batavian Republic.
The kingdom of Louis Bonaparte.
Annexation to France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (FEBRUARY-APRIL);
1794-1795 (OCTOBER-MAY);
and NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1806-1810.

HOLLAND: A. D. 1813-1814.
Independence regained.
Belgium annexed.
The kingdom of the Netherlands.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1813;
FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (APRIL-JUNE);
and VIENNA, THE CONGRESS OF.

HOLLAND: A. D. 1830-1832.
Dissolution of the kingdom of the Netherlands.
Creation of the kingdoms of Holland and Belgium.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1830-1832.

----------HOLLAND: Start--------

HOLLAND PURCHASE, The.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1786-1799.

HOLLY SPRINGS, Confederate capture.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (DECEMBER: ON THE MISSISSIPPI).

HOLOCAUST.

"The sacrifice of a whole burnt-offering, where nothing was
kept back for the enjoyment of men," was called a holocaust by
the ancient Greeks.

_G. F. Schömann,
Antiquities of Greece: The State,
page 60._

----------HOLSTEIN: Start--------

HOLSTEIN: A. D. 1848-1866.
The Schleswig-Holstein question.

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (DENMARK): A. D. 1848-1862;
and GERMANY: A. D. 1861-1866.

HOLSTEIN: A. D. 1866.
Annexation to Prussia.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1866.

----------HOLSTEIN: End--------

HOLY ALLIANCE, The.

"The document called the Holy Alliance was originally sketched
at Paris [during the occupation of the French capital by the
Allies, after Waterloo, in 1815], in the French language, by
[the Czar] Alexander's own hand, after a long and animated
conversation with Madame de Krüdener and Bergasse. It was
suggested, perhaps, by words spoken by the king of Prussia
after the battle of Bautzen, but was chiefly the result of the
influence, upon a mind always inclined to religious ideas, of
the conversation of Madame de Krüdener and of the philosopher
Bader, the admirer of Tauler, Jacob Boehm, and St. Martin, the
deadly foe of Kant and his successors in Germany. … The Czar
dreamt of founding a Communion of states, bound together by
the first principles of Christianity. … The king of Prussia
signed the paper from motives of friendship for the Czar,
without attaching much importance to what he did. … The
emperor of Austria, the least sentimental of mankind, at first
declined to sign, 'because,' he said, 'if the secret is a
political one, I must tell it, to Metternich; if it is a
religious one, I must tell it to my confessor.' Metternich
accordingly was told; and observed scornfully, 'C'est du
verbiage.'
{1658}
Indeed no one of the princes who adhered to the Holy Alliance,
with the single exception of Alexander himself, ever took it
seriously. It was doomed from its birth. As M. de Bernhardi
observes: 'It sank without leaving a trace in the stream of
events, never became a reality, and never had the slightest
real importance.' What had real importance was the continuance
of the good understanding between the powers who had put down
Napoleon, and their common fear of France. This good
understanding and that common fear led to the treaty of the
20th November 1815, by which it was stipulated that the Powers
should, from time to time, hold Congresses with a view to
regulating the welfare of nations and the peace of Europe. It
was these Congresses, and not the Holy Alliance, which kept up
close relations between the rulers of Russia, Prussia, and
Austria, and enabled them, when the liberal movement on the
Continent, which followed the conclusion of the war, began to
be alarming, to take measures for a combined system of
repression."

_M. E. G. Duff,
Studies in European Polities,
chapter 2._

The text of the Treaty is as follows:

"In the name of the Most Holy and Indivisible Trinity: Holy
Alliance of Sovereigns of Austria, Prussia, and Russia. Their
Majesties the Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia, and the
Emperor of Russia, having, in consequence of the great events
which have marked the course of the three last years in
Europe, and especially of the blessings which it has pleased
Divine Providence to shower down upon those States which place
their confidence and their hope on it alone, acquired the
intimate conviction of the necessity of settling the steps to
be observed by the Powers, in their reciprocal relations, upon
the sublime truths which the Holy Religion of our Saviour
teaches; They solemnly declare that the present Act has no
other object than to publish, in the face of the whole world,
their fixed resolution, both in the administration of their
respective States, and in their political relations with every
other Government, to take for their sole guide the precepts of
that Holy Religion, namely, the precepts of Justice, Christian
Charity, and Peace, which, far from being applicable only to
private concerns, must have an immediate influence on the
councils of Princes, and guide all their steps, as being the
only means of consolidating human institutions and remedying
their imperfections. In consequence, their Majesties have
agreed on the following Articles:—

Art. I. Conformably to the words of the Holy Scriptures,
which command all men to consider each other as brethren,
the Three contracting Monarchs will remain united by the
bonds of a true and indissoluble fraternity, and
considering each other as fellow countrymen, they will, on
all occasions and in all places, lend each other aid and
assistance; and, regarding themselves towards their
subjects and armies as fathers of families, they will lead
them, in the same spirit of fraternity with which they are
animated, to protect Religion, Peace, and Justice.

Art II. In consequence, the sole principle of force,
whether between the said Governments or between their
Subjects, shall be that of doing each other reciprocal
service, and of testifying by unalterable good will the
mutual affection with which they ought to be animated, to
consider themselves all as members of one and the same
Christian nation; the three allied Princes looking on
themselves as merely delegated by Providence to govern
three branches of the One family, namely, Austria, Prussia,
and Russia, thus confessing that the Christian world, of
which they and their people form a part, has in reality no
other Sovereign than Him to whom alone power really
belongs, because in Him alone are found all the treasures
of love, science, and infinite wisdom, that is to say, God,
our Divine Saviour, the Word of the Most High, the Word of
Life. Their Majesties consequently recommend to their
people, with the most tender solicitude, as the sole means
of enjoying that Peace which arises from a good conscience,
and which alone is durable, to strengthen themselves every
day more and more in the principles and exercise of the
duties which the Divine Saviour has taught to mankind.

Art. III. All the Powers who shall choose solemnly to avow
the sacred principles which have dictated the present Act,
and shall acknowledge how important it is for the happiness
of nations, too long agitated, that these truths should
henceforth exercise over the destinies of mankind all the
influence which belongs to them, will be received with
equal ardour and affection into this Holy Alliance. Done in
triplicate, and signed at Paris, the year of Grace 1815,
14/26th September."

"It is stated in 'Martens' Treaties' that the greater part of
the Christian Powers acceded to this Treaty. France acceded to
it in 1815; the Netherlands and Wurtemberg did so in 1816; and
Saxony, Switzerland, and the Hansa Towns in 1817. But neither
the Pope nor the Sultan were invited to accede."

_E. Hertslet,
Map of Europe by Treaty,
volume 1, number 36, pages 317-319._

"The Treaty of the Holy Alliance was not graced with the name
of the Prince Regent [of Great Britain], but the Czar received
a letter declaring that his principles had the personal
approval of this great authority on religion and morality. The
Kings of Naples and Sardinia were the next to subscribe, and
in due time the names of the witty glutton, Louis XVIII., and
of the abject Ferdinand of Spain were added."

_C. A. Fyffe,
History of Modern Europe,
volume 2, chapter 1._

"Metternich, the worldly-wise, smiled at this manifesto as
'nothing more than a philanthropic aspiration clothed in a
religious garb.' He suspected that the evil-minded would
misinterpret and that the jokers would ridicule it, but none
knew better than he the flimsiness of diplomatic agreements,
and accordingly he consented to it. Christianity has had many
crimes committed in its name; the Holy Alliance made
Christianity the cloak under which the kings of Europe
conspired to perpetuate the helotage of their subjects.
Metternich found it all the easier to direct kings whose
common interest it was to uphold the paternal system therein
approved. He exerted his influence over each of them
separately; if the monarch were obdurate, he wheedled his
minister; if the minister were wary, he prejudiced the monarch
against him. Now by flattery, and now by specious argument, he
won his advantage. … Like a trickster at cards, he marked
every card in the pack and could always play the ace. … He
told the truth when he knew it would not be believed; he
prevaricated when he intended his falsehood should pass for
truth. This was diplomacy, these the 'Christian precepts' by
which one hundred and fifty millions of Europeans were
governed.
{1659}
In a society where everyone lies, falsehoods of equal cunning
nullify each other. Metternich took care that his should excel
in verisimilitude and in subtlety. It was an open battle of
craft; but his craft was as superior to that of his
competitors as a slow, undetectable poison is more often fatal
than the hasty stab of a bravo. He fished both with hooks and
nets; if one broke, the other held. … He was, we may affirm,
sincerely insincere; strongly attached to the Hapsburg
dynasty, and patriotic in so far as the aggrandizement of that
House corresponded with the interests of the Austrian State.
But the central figure in his perspective was always himself,
whom he regarded as the savior of a social order whose
preservation held back the world from chaos. … He spoke of
his mission as an 'apostolate.' … To resist all
change,—that was his policy; to keep the surface
smooth,—that was his peace. … He likened himself to a
spider, spinning a vast web. 'I begin to know the world well,'
he said, 'and I believe that the flies are eaten by the
spiders only because they die naturally so young that they
have no time to gain experience, and do not know what is the
nature of a spider's web.' How many flies he caught during his
forty years' spinning! but his success, he admitted, was due
quite as much to their blindness as to his cunning. … He
seemed to delight in royal conferences in order that he might
have the excitement of manipulating Alexander and Frederick
William; for his own Emperor, Francis, was as pliable as putty
in his hands. Such was Metternich, 'the most worldly, the most
dexterous, the most fortunate of politicians,' the embodiment
of that Old Régime strangely interpolated in the nineteenth
century. Knowing him, we shall know the nature of the
resistance which checked every patriotic impulse, every effort
towards progress in Italy, between 1815 and 1848. Few names
have been hated as his was hated, or feared as his was feared.
The Italians pictured to themselves a monster, a worse than
Herod, who gloated over human suffering, and spent his time in
inventing new tortures for his victims. He regarded them, and
all liberals, as natural enemies to the order in which he
flourished; and he had no more mercy for them than the Spanish
Inquisitors had for heretics."

_W. R. Thayer,
The Dawn of Italian Independence,
book 2, chapter 1 (volume 1)._

HOLY BROTHERHOOD, OR HERMANDAD, The.

Before the close of the 13th century, there first arose in
Spain "an anomalous institution peculiar to Castile, which
sought to secure the public tranquillity by means scarcely
compatible themselves with civil subordination. I refer to the
celebrated Hermandad, or Holy Brotherhood, as the association
was sometimes called,—a name familiar to most readers in the
lively fictions of Le Sage, though conveying there no very
adequate idea of the extraordinary functions which it assumed
at the period under review [13th-14th centuries]. Instead of a
regularly organized police, it then consisted of a
confederation of the principal cities, bound together by a
solemn league and covenant for the defence of their liberties
in seasons of civil anarchy. Its affairs were conducted by
deputies, who assembled at stated intervals for this purpose,
transacting their business under a common seal, enacting laws
which they were careful to transmit to the nobles and even the
sovereign himself, and enforcing their measures by an armed
force. … One hundred cities associated in the Hermandad of
1315. In that of 1295, were thirty-four. The knights and
inferior nobility frequently made part of the association. …
In one of [the articles of confederation] it is declared that
if any noble shall deprive a member of the association of his
property, and refuse restitution, his house shall be razed to
the ground. In another, that if any one, by command of the
king, shall attempt to collect an unlawful tax, he shall be
put to death on the spot." Under the government of Ferdinand
and Isabella, among the measures adopted for checking the
license and disorder which had become prevalent in Castile,
and restoring a more effective administration of justice, was
one for a reorganization of the Santa Hermandad. "The project
for the reorganization of this institution was introduced into
the cortes held, the year after Isabella's accession, at
Madrigal, 1476. … The new institution differed essentially
from the ancient hermandades, since, instead of being partial
in its extent, it was designed to embrace the whole kingdom;
and, instead of being directed, as had often been the case,
against the crown itself, it was set in motion at the
suggestion of the latter, and limited in its operation to the
maintenance of public order. The crimes reserved for its
jurisdiction were all violence or theft committed on the
highways or in the open country, and in cities by such
offenders as escaped into the country; house-breaking; rape;
and resistance of justice. … An annual contribution of
18,000 maravedis was assessed on every 100 vecinos or
householders, for the equipment and maintenance of a horseman,
whose duty it was to arrest offenders and enforce the sentence
of the law. On the flight of a criminal, the tocsins of the
villages through which he was supposed to have passed were
sounded, and the quadrilleros or officers of the brotherhood,
stationed on the different points, took up the pursuit with
such promptness as left little chance of escape. A court of
two alcaldes was established in every town containing thirty
families, for the trial of all crimes within the jurisdiction
of the hermandad; and an appeal lay from them in specified
cases to a supreme council. A general junta, composed of
deputies from the cities throughout the kingdom was annually
convened for the regulation of affairs, and their instructions
were transmitted to provincial juntas, who superintended the
execution of them. … Notwithstanding the popular
constitution of the hermandad, and the obvious advantages
attending its introduction at this juncture, it experienced so
decided an opposition from the nobility, who discerned the
check it was likely to impose on their authority, that it
required all the queen's address and perseverance to effect
its general adoption. … The important benefits resulting
from the institution of the hermandad secured its confirmation
by successive cortes, for the period of 22 years, in spite of
the repeated opposition of the aristocracy. At length, in
1498, the objects for which it was established having been
completely obtained, it was deemed advisable to relieve the
nation from the heavy charges which its maintenance imposed.
The great salaried officers were dismissed; a few subordinate
functionaries were retained for the administration of justice,
over whom the regular courts of criminal law possessed appellate
jurisdiction; and the magnificent apparatus of the Santa
Hermandad, stripped of all but the terrors of its name,
dwindled into an ordinary police, such as it has existed, with
various modifications of form, down to the present century."

_W. H. Prescott,
History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella,
introduction, section 1, with foot-note,
and part 1, chapter 6._

{1660}

HOLY BROTHERHOOD IN MEXICO.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1535-1822.

HOLY GHOST, The military Order of the.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1578-1580.

HOLY JUNTA, The.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1518-1522.

----------HOLY LEAGUES: Start--------

HOLY LEAGUES:
Pope Julius II. against Louis XII. of France.

See ITALY: A. D. 1510-1513.

Pope Clement VII. against Charles V.

See ITALY: A. D. 1523-1527.

German Catholic princes against the Protestant League of
Smalcald.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1533-1546.

Spain, Venice and Pope Pius V. against the Turks.

See TURKS: A. D. 1566-1571.

Of the Catholic party in the Religious Wars of France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1576-1585, to 1593-1598.

Pope Innocent XI., the Emperor, Venice, Poland and Russia
against the Turks.

See TURKS: A. D. 1684-1696.

----------HOLY LEAGUES: End--------

HOLY LION, Battle of the (1568).

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1568-1572.

HOLY OFFICE, The.

See INQUISITION: A. D. 1203-1525.

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE:
Its origin.

See ROMAN EMPIRE, THE HOLY: A. D. 963.

Its extinction.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1805-1806.

HOLY ROOD OF SCOTLAND, The.

"A certified fragment of the true cross preserved in a shrine
of gold or silver gilt. It was brought over by St. Margaret,
and left as a sacred legacy to her descendants and their
kingdom. … The rood had been the sanctifying relic round
which King David I. raised the house of canons regular of the
Holy Rood, devoted to the rule of St. Augustin, at Edinburgh.
The kings of Scotland afterwards found it so convenient to
frequent this religious house that they built alongside of it
a royal residence or palace, well known to the world as
Holyrood House."

_J. H. Burton,
History of Scotland,
chapter 20 (volume 2)._

The Holy Rood, or Black Rood as it was sometimes called, was
carried away from Scotland, along with the "coronation stone,"
by Edward I. of England, afterwards got back by treaty, and
then lost again at the battle of Neville's Cross, from which
it went as a trophy to Durham Abbey.

HOLY WAR, Mahometan.

See DAR-UL-ISLAM.

HOMAGE.

See FEUDAL TENURES.

HOME RULE MOVEMENT, The Irish.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1873-1879, to 1893.

HOMER AND THE HOMERIC POEMS.

"When we use the word Homer, we do not mean a person
historically known to us, like Pope or Milton. We mean in the
main the author, whoever or whatever he was, of the wonderful
poems called respectively, not by the author, but by the
world, the 'Iliad' and the 'Odyssey.' His name is
conventional, and its sense in etymology is not very different
from that which would be conveyed by our phrase, 'the author.'
… At the first dawn of the historic period, we find the
poems established in popular renown; and so prominent that a
school of minstrels takes the name of 'Homeridæ' from making
it their business to preserve and to recite them. Still, the
question whether the poems as we have them can be trusted,
whether they present substantially the character of what may
be termed original documents, is one of great but gradually
diminishing difficulty. It is also of importance, because of
the nature of their contents. In the first place, they give a
far greater amount of information than is to be found in any
other literary production of the same compass. In the second
place, that information, speaking of it generally, is to be
had nowhere else. In the third place, it is information of the
utmost interest, and even of great moment. It introduces to
us, in the very beginnings of their experience, the most
gifted people of the world, and enables us to judge how they
became such as in later times we know them. … And this
picture is exhibited with such a fulness both of particulars
and of vital force, that perhaps never in any country has an
age been so completely placed upon record. … We are …
probably to conceive of Homer as of a Bard who went from place
to place to earn his bread by his profession, to exercise his
knowledge in his gift of song, and to enlarge it by an
ever-active observation of nature and experience of men. …
It has … been extensively believed that he was a Greek of
Asia Minor. And as there were no Greeks of Asia Minor at the
time of the Trojan War, nor until a wide and searching
revolution in the peninsula had substituted Dorian manners for
those of the earlier Achaian age, which Homer sang, this
belief involves the further proposition that the poet was
severed by a considerable interval of time from the subjects
of his verse. The last-named opinion depends very much upon
the first; and the first chiefly, if not wholly, upon a
perfectly vague tradition, which has no pretence to an
historical character. … The question … has to be decided …
by the internal evidence of the poems. This evidence, I
venture to say, strongly supports the belief that Homer was an
European, and if an European, then certainly also an Achaian
Greek: a Greek, that is to say, of the pre-Doric period, when
the Achaian name prevailed and principally distinguished the
race. … Until the 18th century of our era was near its
close, it may be said that all generations had believed Troy
was actually Troy, and Homer in the main Homer; neither taking
the one for a fable, or (quaintest of all dreams) for a symbol
of solar phenomena, nor resolving the other into a multiform
assemblage of successive bards, whose verses were at length
pieced together by a clever literary tailor. … After
slighter premonitory movements, it was Wolf that made, by the
publication of his 'Prolegomena' in 1795, the serious attack.
… Wolf maintained that available writing was not known at,
or till long after, the period of their composition; and that
works of such length, not intrusted to the custody of written
characters, could not have been transmitted through a course
of generations with any approach to fidelity. Therefore they
could only be a number of separate songs, brought together at
a later date."

_W. E. Gladstone,
Homer (Literature Primers),
chapters 1-2._

{1661}

"Homeric geography is entirely pre-Dorian. Total
unconsciousness of any such event as the Dorian invasion
reigns both in the Iliad and Odyssey. … A silence so
remarkable can be explained only by the simple supposition
that when they were composed the revolution in question had
not yet occurred. Other circumstances confirm this view."

_A. M. Clerke,
Familiar Studies in Homer,
chapter 1._

"It is … in the discoveries of Dr. Schliemann that we have
the impulse which seems to be sending the balance over towards
the belief in the European instead of in the Asiatic origin of
the poems. We now know that at the very point which Homer
makes the chief royal city of Greece there did, in fact, exist
a civilisation which did, in fact, offer just the conditions
for the rise of a poetry such as the Homeric—a great city
'rich in gold,' with a cultivation of the material arts such
as is wont to go hand in hand with the growth of poetry. …

See GREECE: MYCENÆ AND ITS KINGS.

It is no longer possible to doubt that the world which the
poems describe was one which really existed in the place where
they put it. Even in details the poems have received striking
illustration from the remains of Mykenai. … It appears that
we may date the oldest part of the Iliad at least to some time
before the Dorian invasion, which, according to the
traditional chronology, took place about 1000 B. C. … But
the poems can hardly be much earlier than the invasion; for
there are various signs which indicate that the civilisation
which they depict had made some advance beyond that of which
we find the material remains in the 'shaft tombs,' discovered
by Dr. Schliemann in the Acropolis of Mykenai. And the date of
these has now been fixed by Mr. Petrie, from comparison with
Egyptian remains, at about 1150. We can therefore hardly be
far wrong, if the poems were composed in Achaian Greece, in
dating their origin at about 1050 B. C. There still remains
the question of the historical basis which may underlie the
story of the Iliad. The poem may give us a true picture of
Achaian Greece and its civilisation, and yet be no proof that
the armies of Agamemnon fought beneath the walls of Troy. But
here again the discoveries of recent years, and notably those
of Schliemann at Hissarlik, have tended on the whole to
confirm the belief that there is a historic reality behind the
tale of Troy. … The hypothesis that the Iliad and Odyssey
are the work of more than one poet … is one which has been
gaining ground ever since it was seriously taken up and argued
at length by Wolf in his famous 'Prolegomena,' just a century
ago. But it has from the first encountered strong opposition,
and is still regarded, in England at least, as the heretical
view."

_W. Leaf,
Companion to the Iliad,
introd._

"It seems clear that the author or authors of the Iliad and
Odyssey lived long before the time when Æolian, Ionian,
Dorian, were the three great tribal names of Greece, and far
from the coast on which these three names were attached to
successive portions of territory. If we are to decide the
ancient controversy about the birthplace of Homer, we must
turn away from Asia, and set ourselves to consider the claims
of three districts of Greece proper: Thessaly, the home of the
chief hero and the most ancient worship; Bœotia, the ancient
seat of the Muses, and the first in the very ancient (if not
actually Homeric) muster-roll of the ships; and Argolis, the
seat of Achæan empire."

_D. B. Monro,
Homer and the Early History of Greece
(English Historical Review, January, 1886)._

"I hold that the original nucleus of the Iliad was due to a
single Achaean poet, living in Thessaly before the immigration
which partly displaced the primitive Hellenes there. This
primary Iliad may have been as old as the eleventh century B.
C. It was afterwards brought by Achaean emigrants to Ionia,
and there enlarged by successive Ionian poets. The original
nucleus of the Odyssey was also composed, probably, in Greece
proper, before the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus; was
carried to Ionia by emigrants whom the conquerors drove out;
and was there expanded into an epic which blends the local
traits of its origin with the spirit of Ionian adventure and
Ionian society."

_R. C. Jebb,
The growth and influence of Classical Greek Poetry,
page 14._

_R. C. Jebb,
Homer: An Introduction to the Iliad and the Odyssey._

"We accept the Iliad as one epic by one hand. The
inconsistencies which are the basis of the opposite theory
seem to us reconcileable in many places, in others greatly
exaggerated. … To us the hypothesis of a crowd of great
harmonious poets, working for centuries at the Iliad, and
sinking their own fame and identity in Homer's, appears more
difficult of belief than the opinion that one great poet may
make occasional slips and blunders." As for the Odyssey, "we
have … to deal with critics who do not recognise the unity,
the marshalling of incidents towards a given end. We have to
do with critics who find, in place of unity, patchwork and
compilation, and evident traces of diverse dates, and diverse
places of composition. Thus argument is inefficient,
demonstration is impossible, and the final judge must be the
opinion of the most trustworthy literary critics and of
literary tradition. These are unanimous, as against the
'microscope-men,' in favor of the unity of the Odyssey."

_A. Lang,
Homer and the Epic,
chapters 7 and 13._

HOMERITES, The.

See ABYSSINIA: 6TH TO 16TH CENTURIES.

HOMESTEAD ACT, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (MAY).

HOMILDON HILL, Battle of.

A victory for the English, under "Hotspur," over a raiding
army of the Scots, A. D. 1402. It was won almost entirely by
the English cross-bow. By some historians it is called the
Battle of Humbledon.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1400-1436.

HOMOOUSION AND HOMOIOUSION.

SEE ARIANISM.

HOMS, Battle of (1832).

See TURKS: A. D. 1831-1840.

HONDSCHOTTEN, Battle of (1793).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JULY-DECEMBER).

----------HONDURAS: Start--------

HONDURAS:
Aboriginal inhabitants.
Ruins of Ancient Civilization.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MAYAS, and QUICHES.

HONDURAS: A. D. 1502.
Discovery by Columbus.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1498-1505.

HONDURAS: A. D. 1524.
Conquest by Olid and Cortes.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1521-1524.

{1662}

HONDURAS: A. D. 1821-1871.
Separation from Spain and independence.
Brief annexation to Mexico.
Attempted federations and their failure.
The British colony.

See CENTRAL AMERICA: A. D. 1821-1871.

----------HONDURAS: End--------

HONDURAS, British: A. D. 1850.
The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty.

See NICARAGUA: A. D. 1850.

HONE, William, The Trials of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1816-1820.

HONEIN, Battle of.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 609-632.

HONG-KONG: A. D. 1842.
Ceded to Great Britain.

See CHINA: A. D. 1839-1842.

HONG MERCHANTS.

See CHINA: A. D. 1839-1842.

HONORIUS,
Roman Emperor (Western), A. D. 395-423.
Honorius I., Pope, 625-638.
Honorius II., Pope, 1124-1130.
Honorius III., Pope, 1216-1227.
Honorius IV., Pope, 1285-1287;

HONOURS, Escheated.

"When a great barony by forfeiture or escheat fell into the
hands of the [English] crown, instead of being incorporated
with the general body of the county or counties in which it
lay, it retained a distinct corporate existence and the whole
apparatus of jurisdiction which it had possessed before. Under
the title of an Honour, it either continued in the possession
of the king and was farmed like a shire, or was granted out
again to another lord as a hereditary fief."

_W. Stubbs,
Constitutional History of England,
chapter 11, section 129 (volume 1)._

HOOD, General John B.
The Atlanta campaign.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864
(MAY-SEPTEMBER: GEORGIA) to (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER: GEORGIA).

HOOKER, General Joseph, Commander of the Army of the Potomac.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1863 (JANUARY-APRIL: VIRGINIA),
and (APRIL-MAY: VIRGINIA).

Transfer to Chattanooga.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1863 (JULY-NOVEMBER: VIRGINIA).

At Chattanooga.—The Battle above the Clouds.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863
(OCTOBER-NOVEMBER: TENNESSEE).

HOOKS AND KABELJAUWS, OR HOOKS AND CODS.

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1345-1354;
also, 1482-1493.

HOOVER'S GAP, Battle at.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1863 (JUNE-JULY: TENNESSEE).

HOPLITES.

Heavy-armed foot-soldiers of the Greeks.

See PHYLÆ.

HORESTII, The.

See BRITAIN: CELTIC TRIBES.

HORIKANS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: HORIKANS.

HORITES, The.

The aborigines of Canaan,—dwellers in caves, Troglodytes. "At
the time of the Israelitish conquest … there still existed
many remains of the Aborigines scattered through the land.
They were then ordinarily designated by a name which suggests
very different ideas—Rephaim, or Giants."

_H. Ewald,
History of Israel, introduction,
section 4._

F. Lenormant considers the Rephaim a distinct race, divided
into the Rephaim of Bashan, the Emim, the Zamzummim, the Zumim
and the Anakim.

_Manual of Ancient History,
book 6, chapter 1._

See, also,
JEWS: THE EARLY HEBREW HISTORY.

HORMUZ, Battle of.

The decisive battle, fought A. D. 226, on the plain of Hormuz,
in Persia Proper, in which the Parthian monarchy was
overthrown, its last king, Artabanus, slain, and the New
Persian, or Sassanian empire established by Artaxerxes I.

_G. Rawlinson,
Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy,
chapter 3._

HORN, Count, and the struggle in the Netherlands.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1566-1568.

HORN, Cape.
Discovered by Drake (1578).

See AMERICA: A. D. 1572-1580.

HORTENSIAN LAWS, The.

See ROME: B. C. 286.

HOSEIN, The martyrdom of.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 680.

HOSPES. HOSPITES. HOSPITIUM.

"In the earlier stages of society, especially in Greece and
Italy, where the population consisted of numerous independent
tribes constantly at variance with each other, every stranger
was looked upon with suspicion. … Hence it became common for
a person who was engaged in commerce, or any other occupation
which might compel him to visit a foreign country, to form
previously a connection with a citizen of that country, who
might be ready to receive him as a friend and act as his
protector. Such a connection was always strictly reciprocal.
… An alliance of this description was termed Hospitium, the
parties who concluded it were termed Hospites in relation to
each other, and thus the word Hospes bore a double
signification, denoting, according to circumstances, either an
entertainer or a guest. The obligations imposed by the
covenant were regarded as of the most sacred character. …
The league of Hospitium, when once formed, was hereditary. …
The parties interchanged tokens, by which they or their
descendants might recognise each other. This token, called
'tessera hospitalis,' was carefully preserved. … In process
of time, among both the Greeks and Romans, it became common
for a state, when it desired to pay a marked compliment to any
individual, to pass a resolution declaring him the Hospes of
the whole community."

_W. Ramsay,
Manual of Roman Antiquity,
chapter 3._

----------HOSPITALLERS: Start--------

HOSPITALLERS OF ST. JOHN OF JERUSALEM, The Knights:
A. D. 1115-1310.
The origin and rise of the order.

"Some citizens of Amalfi, in Italy, who traded to the East,
had [some time before the first crusade], with the permission
of the Egyptian khaleefeh, built a convent near the church of
the Resurrection [at Jerusalem], which was dedicated to the
Virgin, and named Santa Maria de Latina, whose abbot and monks
were to receive and entertain pilgrims from the West. A
nunnery was afterwards added, and as the confluence of
pilgrims increased, a new 'hospitium' was erected, dedicated
to St. John Eleëmon ('compassionate'), a former patriarch of
Alexandria, or, as is asserted, with perhaps more probability,
to St. John the Baptist. This hospital was supported by the
bounty of the abbot of Sta. Maria and the alms of the
faithful, and the sick and poor of the pilgrims here met with
attention and kindness. At the time of the taking of
Jerusalem, Gerhard, a native of Provence, presided over the
hospital; and the care taken by him and his brethren of the
sick and wounded of the crusaders won them universal favour.
Godfrey bestowed on them his domain of Monboire, in Brabant;
his example was followed by others, and the brethren of the
Hospital soon found themselves rich enough to separate from
the monastery.
{1663}
They adopted the rule of the Augustinian canons, and assumed
for their habit a black mantle, with a white cross of eight
points on the left breast. Many knights who had come to Asia
to combat the Infidels now laid aside their swords, and, as
brethren of the Hospital, devoted themselves to the tending of
the sick and relieving of the poor. Among these was a knight
of Dauphiné, named Raymond Dupuy, who, on the death of
Gerhard, was chosen to be his successor in office. Raymond, in
the year 1118, gave the order its first regular organization."

_T. Keightley,
The Crusaders,
chapter 2._

To Raymond Dupuy "the Order owed its distinctly military
character, and that wonderful organization, combining the care
of the sick and poor with the profession of arms, which
characterized the Knights of St. John during all their
subsequent history. … A new and revised constitution was
drawn up, by which it was provided that there should be three
classes of members. First, the Knights, who should bear arms
and form a military body for service in the field against the
enemies of Christ in general, and of the kingdom of Jerusalem
in particular. These were to be of necessity men of noble or
gentle birth. Secondly, the Clergy, or Chaplains. … Thirdly,
the Serving Brethren, who were not required to be men of rank,
and who acted as Esquires to the Knights, and assisted in the
care of the hospitals. All persons of these three classes were
considered alike members of the Order, and took the usual
three monastic vows, and wore the armorial bearings of the
Order, and enjoyed its rights and privileges. As the Order
spread and the number of its members and convents increased,
it was found desirable to divide it further into nations or
'Langes' [tongues, or languages], of which there were
ultimately seven, viz., those of Provence, Auvergne, France,
Italy, Aragon, Germany, and England. The habit was a black
robe with a cowl, having a cross of white linen of eight
points upon the left breast. This was at first worn by all
Hospitallers, to whichever of the three classes they belonged;
but Pope Alexander IV. afterwards ordered that the Knights
should be distinguished by a white cross upon a red ground.
… It was not long before the new Order found a field for the
exercise of its arms. … From this time the Hospitallers were
always found in the ranks of the Christian army in every
battle that was fought with the Moslems, and the fame of their
gallantry and bravery soon spread far and wide, and attracted
fresh recruits to their ranks from the noblest families of
every country of Europe. They became the right hand of the
King of Jerusalem," sharing the fortunes of the nominal
kingdom for nearly two centuries, and almost sharing its
ultimate fate. The handful who escaped from Acre in 1291 (see
JERUSALEM: A. D. 1291) took refuge in Cyprus and rallied there
the Knights scattered in other lands. Rebuilding and
fortifying the town of Limisso, they made that their citadel
and capital for a few years, finding a new vocation for their
pious valor. They now took up war upon the naval side, and
turned their arms specially against the Moslem pirates of the
Mediterranean. They fitted out armed ships "which began to
cruise between Palestine and European ports, conveying
pilgrims, rescuing captives, and engaging and capturing the
enemy's galleys." But not finding in Cyprus the independence
they desired, the Knights, ere long, established themselves in
a more satisfactory home on the island of Rhodes.

_F. C. Woodhouse,
Military Religious Orders of the Middle Ages,
part 1, chapter 3-6._

ALSO IN:
_Abbe de Vertot,
History of the Knights Hospitallers,
books 1-3 (volume 1)._

_A. Sutherland,
Achievements of the Knights of Malta,
chapters 1-9 (volume 1)._

HOSPITALLERS OF ST. JOHN OF JERUSALEM: A. D. 1310.
Conquest and occupation of Rhodes.