Chapter IV: , VII (188)

After the surrender of Haarlem, a mutiny broke out among the
Spanish troops that had been engaged in the siege, to whom 28
months' arrears of pay were due. "It was appeased with great
difficulty at the end of seven weeks, when Alva determined to
make a decisive attack on Holland both by land and water, and
with this view commanded his son, Don Frederic di Toledo, to
march to the siege of Alkmaar, and repaired in person to
Amsterdam. … Don Frederic laid siege to Alkmaar at the head
of 16,000 able and efficient troops; within the town were
1,300 armed burghers and 800 soldiers, as many perhaps as it
was at that time capable of containing. With this handful of
men the citizens of Alkmaar defended themselves no less
resolutely than the Haarlemmers had done. The fierce
onslaughts of the Spaniards were beaten back with uniform
success on the part of the besieged; the women and girls were
never seen to shrink from the fight, even where it was
hottest, but unceasingly supplied the defenders with stones
and burning missiles, to throw amongst their enemies. … But
as there were no means of conveying reinforcements to the
besieged from without, and their supplies began to fail, they
resolved, after a month's siege, on the desperate measure of
cutting through the dykes. Some troops sent by Sonnoy having
effected this, and opened the sluices, the whole country was
soon deluged with water. Don Frederic, astounded at this novel
mode of warfare, and fearing that himself and his whole army
would be drowned, broke up his camp in haste, and fled, rather
than retreated, to Amsterdam. It seemed almost as though the
blessing which the Prince of Orange had promised his people
had come upon them. The capture of Geertruydenberg, about this
time, by one of his lieutenants, was followed by a naval
victory, as signal as it was important. The Admiral Bossu, to
whom was given the command of the [Spanish] fleet at
Amsterdam, having sailed through the Pampus with the design of
occupying the Zuyderzee, and thus making himself master of the
towns of North Holland, encountered the fleet of those towns,
consisting of 24 vessels, commanded by Admiral Dirkson,
stationed in the Zuyderzee to await his arrival." After
several days of skirmishing, the Dutch fleet forced a close
fight, "which lasted with little intermission from the
afternoon of the 11th of October to midday of the 12th, during
which time two of the royalist ships were sunk and a
third captured.
{2266}
"The remainder fled or surrendered, Bossu, himself, being
taken prisoner. "On intelligence of the issue of the battle,
Alva quitted Amsterdam in haste and secrecy. This success
delivered the towns of North Holland from the most imminent
danger, and rendered the possession of Amsterdam nearly
useless to the royalists." Alva was now forced to call a
meeting of the states-general, in the hope of obtaining a vote
of money. "Upon their assembling at Brussels, the states of
Holland despatched an earnest and eloquent address, exhorting
them to emancipate themselves from Spanish slavery and the
cruel tyranny of Alva, which the want of unanimity in the
provinces had alone enabled him to exercise. … Their
remonstrance appears to have been attended with a powerful
effect, since the states-general could neither by threats or
remonstrances be induced to grant the smallest subsidy. …
Alva, having become heartily weary of the government he had
involved in such irretrievable confusion, now obtained his
recall; his place was filled by Don Louis de Requesens, grand
commander of Castile. In the November of this year, Alva
quitted the Netherlands, leaving behind him a name which has
become a bye-word of hatred, scorn, and execration. … During
the six years that he had governed the Netherlands, 18,000
persons had perished by the hand of the executioner, besides
the numbers massacred at Naarden, Zutphen, and other conquered
cities." The first undertaking of the new governor was an
attempt to raise the siege of Middleburg, the Spanish garrison
in which had been blockaded by the Gueux for nearly two years;
but the fleet of 40 ships which he fitted out for the purpose
was defeated, at Romers-waale, with a loss of ten vessels.
"The surrender of Middleburg immediately followed, and with it
that of Arnemuyden, which put the Gueux in possession of the
principal islands of Zealand, and rendered them masters of the
sea." But these successes were counterbalanced by a disaster
which attended an expedition led from Germany by Louis of
Nassau, the gallant but unfortunate brother of the Prince of
Orange. His army was attacked and utterly destroyed by the
Spaniards (April 14, 1574) at the village of Mookerheyde, or
Mook, near Nimeguen, and both Louis and his brother Henry of
Nassau were slain. "After raising the siege of Alkmaar, the
Spanish forces, placed under the command of Francesco di
Valdez on the departure of Don Frederic di Toledo, had for
some weeks blockaded Leyden; but were recalled in the spring
of this year to join the rest of the army on its march against
Louis of Nassau. From that time the burghers of Leyden … had
not only neglected to lay up any fresh stores of corn or other
provision, but to occupy or destroy the forts with which the
enemy had encompassed the town. This fact coming to the
knowledge of Don Louis, he once more dispatched Valdez to
renew the siege at the head of 8,000 troops. … Mindful of
Haarlem and Alkmaar, the Spanish commander … brought no
artillery, nor made any preparations for assault, but, well
aware that there were not provisions in the town sufficient
for three months, contented himself with closely investing it
on all sides, and determined to await the slow but sure
effects of famine." In this emergency, the States of Holland
"decreed that all the dykes between Leyden and the Meuse and
Yssel should be cut through, and the sluices opened at
Rotterdam and Schiedam, by which the waters of those rivers,
overflowing the valuable lands of Schieland and Rhynland,
would admit of the vessels bringing succours up to the very
gates of Leyden. The damage was estimated at 600,000 guilders.
… The cutting through the dykes was a work of time and
difficulty, as well from the labour required as from the
continual skirmishes with the enemy. … Even when completed,
it appeared as if the vast sacrifice were utterly unavailing.
A steady wind blowing from the north-east kept back the
waters. … Meanwhile the besieged, who for some weeks heard
no tidings of their deliverers, had scarcely hope left to
enable them to sustain the appalling sufferings they endured.
… 'Then,' says the historian, who heard it from the mouths
of the sufferers, 'there was no food so odious but it was
esteemed a dainty.' … The siege had now lasted five months.
… Not a morsel of food, even the most filthy and loathsome,
remained … when, on a sudden, the wind veered to the
north-west, and thence to the south-west; the waters of the
Meuse rushed in full tide over the land, and the ships rode
triumphantly on the waves. The Gueux, attacking with vigour
the forts on the dykes, succeeded in driving out the garrisons
with considerable slaughter. … On the … 3rd of October …
Valdez evacuated all the forts in the vicinity. … In memory
of this eventful siege, the Prince and States offered the
inhabitants either to found an university or to establish a
fair. They chose the former; but the States … granted both:
the fair of Leyden was appointed to be held on the 1st of
October in every year, the 3rd being ever after held as a
solemn festival; and on the 8th of February in the next year,
the university received its charter from the Prince of Orange
in the name of King Philip. Both proved lasting monuments."

_C. M. Davies,
History of Holland,
part 2, chapters 8-9 (volumes 1-2)._

ALSO IN:
_J. L. Motley,
The Rise of the Dutch Republic,
part 4, chapters 1-2 (volume 2)._

_W. T. Hewett,
The University of Leiden
(Harper's Magazine, March, 1881)._

_C. M. Yonge,
Cameos from English History,
series 5, chapter 16._

NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1575-1577.
Congress at Breda.
Offer of sovereignty to the English Queen.
Death of Requesens.
Mutiny of the Soldiery.
The Spanish Fury.
Alliance of Northern and Southern provinces under
the Pacification of Ghent and the Union of Brussels.
Arrival of Don John of Austria.

"The bankrupt state of Philip II.'s exchequer, and the
reverses which his arms had sustained, induced him to accept
… the proffered mediation of the Emperor Maximilian, which
he had before so arrogantly rejected, and a Congress was held
at Breda from March till June 1575. But the insurgents were
suspicious, and Philip was inflexible; he could not be induced
to dismiss his Spanish troops, to allow the meeting of the
States-General, or to admit the slightest toleration in
matters of religion; and the contest was therefore renewed
with more fury than ever. The situation of the patriots became
very critical when the enemy, by occupying the islands of
Duyveland and Schouwen, cut off the communication between
Holland and Zealand; especially as all hope of succour from
England had expired.
{2267}
Towards the close of the year envoys were despatched to
solicit the aid of Elizabeth, and to offer her, under certain
conditions, the sovereignty of Holland and Zealand. Requesens
sent Champagny to counteract these negociations, which ended
in nothing. The English Queen was afraid of provoking the
power of Spain, and could not even be induced to grant the
Hollanders a loan. The attitude assumed at that time by the
Duke of Alençon, in France, also prevented them from entering
into any negociations with that Prince. In these trying
circumstances, William the Silent displayed the greatest
firmness and courage. It was now that he is said to have
contemplated abandoning Holland and seeking with its
inhabitants a home in the New World, having first restored the
country to its ancient state of a waste of waters; a thought,
however, which he probably never seriously entertained, though
he may have given utterance to it in a moment of irritation or
despondency. … The unexpected death of Requesens, who
expired of a fever, March 5th 1576, after a few days' illness,
threw the government into confusion. Philip II. had given
Requesens a carte blanche to name his successor, but the
nature of his illness had prevented him from filling it up.
The government therefore devolved to the Council of State, the
members of which were at variance with one another; but Philip
found himself obliged to intrust it 'ad interim' with the
administration, till a successor to Requesens could be
appointed. Count Mansfeld was made commander-in-chief, but was
totally unable to restrain the licentious soldiery. The
Spaniards, whose pay was in arrear, had now lost all
discipline. After the raising of the siege of Leyden they had
beset Utrecht and pillaged and maltreated the inhabitants,
till Valdez contrived to furnish their pay. No sooner had
Requesens expired than they broke into open mutiny, and acted
as if they were entire masters of the country. After wandering
about some time and threatening Brussels, they seized and
plundered Alost, where they established themselves; and they
were soon afterwards joined by the Walloon and German troops.
To repress their violence, the Council of State restored to
the Netherlanders the arms of which they had been deprived,
and called upon them by a proclamation to repress force by
force; but these citizen-soldiers were dispersed with great
slaughter by the disciplined troops in various rencounters.
Ghent, Utrecht, Valenciennes, Maestricht were taken and
plundered by the mutineers; and at last the storm fell upon
Antwerp, which the Spaniards entered early in November, and
sacked during three days. More than 1,000 houses were burnt,
8,000 citizens are said to have been slain, and enormous sums
in ready money were plundered. The whole damage was estimated
at 24,000,000 florins. The horrible excesses committed in this
sack procured for it the name of the 'Spanish Fury.' The
government was at this period conducted in the name of the
States of Brabant. On the 5th of September, De Hèze, a young
Brabant gentleman who was in secret intelligence with the
Prince of Orange, had, at the head of 500 soldiers, entered
the palace where the Council of State was assembled, and
seized and imprisoned the members. William, taking advantage
of the alarm created at Brussels by the sack of Antwerp,
persuaded the provisional government to summon the
States-General, although such a course was at direct variance
with the commands of the King. To this assembly all the
provinces except Luxemburg sent deputies. The nobles of the
southern provinces, although they viewed the Prince of Orange
with suspicion, feeling that there was no security for them so
long as the Spanish troops remained in possession of Ghent,
sought his assistance in expelling them; which William
consented to grant only on condition that an alliance should
be effected between the northern and the southern, or Catholic
provinces of the Netherlands. This proposal was agreed to, and
towards the end of September Orange sent several thousand men
from Zealand to Ghent, at whose approach the Spaniards, who
had valorously defended themselves for two months under the
conduct of the wife of their absent general Mondragon,
surrendered, and evacuated the citadel. The proposed alliance
was now converted into a formal union by the treaty called the
Pacification of Ghent, signed November 8th 1576; by which it
was agreed, without waiting for the sanction of Philip, whose
authority however was nominally recognised, to renew the edict
of banishment against the Spanish troops, to procure the
suspension of the decrees against the Protestant religion, to
summon the States-General of the northern and southern
provinces, according to the model of the assembly which had
received the abdication of Charles V., to provide for the
toleration and practise of the Protestant religion in Holland
and Zealand, together with other provisions of a similar
character. About the same time with the Pacification of Ghent,
all Zealand, with the exception of the island of Tholen, was
recovered from the Spaniards. … It was a mistake on the part
of Philip II. to leave the country eight months with only an
'ad interim' government. Had he immediately filled up the
vacancy … the States could not have seized upon the
government, and the alliance established at Ghent would not
have been effected, by which an almost independent
commonwealth had been erected. But Philip seems to have been
puzzled as to the choice of a successor; and his selection, at
length, of his brother Don John of Austria [a natural son of
Charles V.], caused a further considerable delay. … The
state of the Netherlands compelled Don John to enter them, not
with the pomp and dignity becoming the lawful representative
of a great monarch, but stealthily, like a traitor or
conspirator. In Luxemburg alone, the only province which had
not joined the union, could he expect to be received; and he
entered its capital a few days before the publication of the
treaty of Ghent, in the disguise of a Moorish slave, and in
the train of Don Ottavio Gonzaga, brother of the Prince of
Melfi. Having neither money nor arms, he was obliged to
negociate with the provincial government in order to procure
the recognition of his authority. At the instance of the
Prince of Orange, the States insisted on the withdrawal of the
Spanish troops, the maintenance of the treaty of Ghent, an act
of amnesty for past offences, the convocation of the
States-General, and an oath from Don John that he would
respect all the charters and customs of the country. The new
governor was violent, but the States were firm, and in January
1577 was formed the Union of Brussels, the professed objects
of which were, the immediate expulsion of the Spaniards, and
the execution of the Pacification of Ghent; while at the same
time the Catholic religion and the royal authority were to be
upheld.
{2268}
This union, which was only a more popular repetition of the
treaty of Ghent, soon obtained numberless signatures. …
Meanwhile Rodolph II., the new Emperor of Germany, had offered
his mediation, and appointed the Bishop of Liege to use his
good offices between the parties; who, with the assistance of
Duke William of Juliers, brought, or seemed to bring, the new
governor to a more reasonable frame of mind. … Don John
yielded all the points in dispute, and embodied them in what
was called the Perpetual Edict, published March 12th, 1577.
The Prince of Orange suspected from the first that these
concessions were a mere deception."

_T. H. Dyer,
History of Modern Europe,
book 3, chapters 7-9 (volume 2)._

ALSO IN:
_Sir W. Stirling-Maxwell,
Don John of Austria,
volume 2, chapters 4-5._

NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1577-1581.
The administration of Don John.
Orange's well-founded distrust.
Emancipation of Antwerp.
Battle of Gemblours.
Death of Don John and appointment of Parma.
Corruption of Flemish nobles.
Submission of the Walloon provinces.
Pretensions of the Duke of Anjou.
Constitution and declared independence of the Dutch Republic.

"It now seemed that the Netherlands had gained all they asked
for, and that everything for which they had contended had been
conceded. The Blood Council of Alva had almost extirpated the
Reformers, and an overwhelming majority of the inhabitants of
the Low Countries, with the exception of the Hollanders and
Zelanders, belonged to the old Church, provided the
Inquisition was done away with, and a religious peace was
accorded. But Don John had to reckon with the Prince of
Orange. In him William had no confidence. He could not forget
the past. He believed that the signatures and concessions of
the governor and Philip were only expedients to gain time, and
that they would be revoked or set aside as soon as it was
convenient or possible to do so. … He had intercepted
letters from the leading Spaniards in Don John's employment,
in which, when the treaty was in course of signature, designs
were disclosed of keeping possession of all the strong places
in the country, with the object of reducing the patriots in
detail. … Above all, William distrusted the Flemish nobles.
He knew them to be greedy, fickle, treacherous, ready to
betray their country for personal advantage, and to ally
themselves blindly with their natural enemies. … As events
proved, Orange was in the right. Hence he refused to recognize
the treaty in his own states of Holland and Zeland. As soon as
it was published and sent to him, William, after conference
with these states, published a severe criticism on its
provisions. … In all seeming however Don John was prepared
to carry out his engagements. He got together with difficulty
the funds for paying the arrears due to the troops, and sent
them off by the end of April. He caressed the people and he
bribed the nobles. He handed over the citadels to Flemish
governors, and entered Brussels on May 1st. Everything pointed
to success and mutual good will. But we have Don John's
letters, in which he speaks most unreservedly and most
unflatteringly of his new friends, and of his designs on the
liberties of the Netherlands. And all the while that Philip
was soothing and flattering his brother, he had determined on
ruining him, and on murdering the man [Escovedo] whom that
brother loved and trusted. About this time, too, we find that
Philip and his deputy were casting about for the means by
which they might assassinate the Prince of Orange, 'who had
bewitched the whole people!' An attempt of Don John to get
possession of the citadel of Antwerp for himself failed, and
the patriots gained it. The merchants of Antwerp 'agreed to
find the pay still owing to the soldiers, on condition of
their quitting the city. But while they were discussing the
terms, a fleet of Zeland vessels came sailing up the Scheldt.
Immediately a cry was raised, 'The Beggars are coming,' and
the soldiers fled in dismay [August 1, 1577]. Then the
Antwerpers demolished the citadel, and turned the statue of
Alva again into cannon. After these events, William of Orange
put an end to negotiations with Don John. Prince William was
in the ascendant. But the Catholic nobles conspired against
him, and induced the Archduke Matthias, brother of the German
Emperor Rodolph, to accept the place of governor of the
Netherlands in lieu of Don John. He came, but Orange was made
the Ruwaard of Brabant, with full military power. It was the
highest office which could be bestowed on him. The 'Union of
Brussels' followed and was a confederation of all the
Netherlands. But the battle of Gemblours was fought in
February, 1578, and the patriots were defeated. Many small
towns were captured, and it seemed that in course of time the
governor would recover at least a part of his lost authority.
But in the month of September, Don John was seized with a
burning fever, and died on October 1st. … The new governor
of the Netherlands, son of Ottavio Farnese, Prince of Parma,
and of Margaret of Parma, sister of Philip of Spain, was a
very different person from any of the regents who had hitherto
controlled the Netherlands. He was, or soon proved himself to
be, the greatest general of the age, and he was equally,
according to the statesmanship of the age, the most
accomplished and versatile statesman. He had no designs beyond
those of Philip, and during his long career in the
Netherlands, from October, 1578, to December, 1592, he served
the King of Spain as faithfully and with as few scruples as
Philip could have desired. … Parma was religious, but he had
no morality whatever. … He had no scruple in deceiving,
lying, assassinating, and even less scruple in saying or
swearing that he had done none of these things. … He had an
excellent judgment of men, and indeed he had experience of the
two extremes, of the exceeding baseness of the Flemish nobles,
and of the lofty and pure patriotism of the Dutch patriots.
Nothing indeed was more unfortunate for the Dutch than the
belief which they entertained, that the Flemings who had been
dragooned into uniformity, could be possibly stirred to
patriotism. Alva had done his work thoroughly. It is possible
to extirpate a reformation. But the success of the process is
the moral ruin of those who are the subjects of the
experiment. Fortunately for Parma, there was a suitor for the
Netherland sovereignty, in the person of the very worst prince
of the very worst royal family that ever existed in Europe,
i. e., the Duke of Anjou, of the house of Valois.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1577-1578.

{2269}

This person was favoured by Orange, probably because he had
detected Philip's designs on France, and thought that national
jealousy would induce the French government, which was
Catherine of Medici, to favour the low countries. Besides,
Parma had a faction in every Flemish town, who were known as
the Malcontents, who were the party of the greedy and
unscrupulous nobles. And, besides Anjou, there was the party
of another pretender, John Casimir, of Poland. He, however,
soon left them. Parma quickly found in such dissensions plenty
of men whom he could usefully bribe. He made his first
purchases in the Walloon district, and secured them. The
provinces here were Artois, Hainault, Lille, Douay, and
Orchies. They were soon permanently reunited to Spain. On
January 20, 1570, the Union of Utrecht, which was virtually
the Constitution of the Dutch Republic, was agreed to. It was
greater in extent on the Flemish side than the Dutch Republic
finally remained, less on that of Friesland [comprising
Holland, Zeland, Gelderland, Zutphen, Utrecht, and the Frisian
provinces]. Orange still had hopes of including most of the
Netherland seaboard, and he still kept up the form of
allegiance to Philip. The principal event of the year was the
siege and capture of Maestricht [with the slaughter of almost
its entire population of 34,000]. … Mechlin also was
betrayed by its commander, De Bours, who reconciled himself to
Romanism, and received the pay for his treason from Parma at
the same time. In March, 1580, a similar act of treason was
committed by Count Renneberg, the governor of Friesland, who
betrayed its chief city, Groningen. … In the same year,
1580, was published the ban of Philip. This instrument, drawn
up by Cardinal Granvelle, declared Orange to be a traitor and
miscreant, made him an outlaw, put a heavy price on his head
(25,000 gold crowns), offered the assassin the pardon of any
crime, however heinous, and nobility, whatever be his rank.
… William answered the ban by a vigorous appeal to the
civilized world. … Renneberg, the traitor, laid siege to
Steenwyk, the principal fortress of Drenthe, at the beginning
of 1581. … In February, John Norris, the English general,
… relieved the town. Renneberg raised the siege, was
defeated in July by the same Norris, and died, full of
remorse, a few days afterwards. But the most important event
in 1581 was the declaration of Dutch Independence formally
issued at the Hague on the 26th of July. By this instrument,
Orange, though most unwillingly, felt himself obliged to
accept the sovereignty over Holland and Zeland, and whatever
else of the seven provinces was in the hands of the patriots.
The Netherlands were now divided into three portions. The
Walloon provinces in the south were reconciled to Philip and
Parma. The middle provinces were under the almost nominal
sovereignty of Anjou, the northern were under William. …
Philip's name was now discarded from public documents … ;
his seal was broken, and William was thereafter to conduct the
government in his own name. The instrument was styled an 'Act
of Abjuration.'"

_J. E. T. Rogers,
The Story of Holland,
chapters 11-12._

ALSO IN:
_J. L. Motley,
The Rise of the Dutch Republic,
part 5, chapters 4-5,
and part 6, chapters 1-4._

_Sir W. Stirling-Maxwell,
Don John of Austria,
volume 2, chapters 8-10._

NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1581-1584.
Refusal of the sovereignty of the United Provinces by Orange.
Its bestowal upon the Duke of Anjou.
Base treachery of Anjou.
The "French Fury" at Antwerp.
Assassination of the Prince of Orange.

"What, then, was the condition of the nation, after this great
step [the Act of Abjuration] had been taken? It stood, as it
were, with its sovereignty in its hand, dividing it into two
portions, and offering it, thus separated, to two distinct
individuals. The sovereignty of Holland and Zealand had been
reluctantly accepted by Orange. The sovereignty of the United
Provinces had been offered to Anjou, but the terms of
agreement with that Duke had not yet been ratified. The
movement was therefore triple, consisting of an abjuration and
of two separate elections of hereditary chiefs; these two
elections being accomplished in the same manner by the
representative bodies respectively of the united provinces and
of Holland and Zealand. … Without a direct intention on the
part of the people or its leaders to establish a republic, the
Republic established itself. Providence did not permit the
whole country, so full of wealth, intelligence, healthy
political action—so stocked with powerful cities and an
energetic population, to be combined into one free and
prosperous commonwealth. The factious ambition of a few
grandees, the cynical venality of many nobles, the frenzy of
the Ghent democracy, the spirit of religious intolerance, the
consummate military and political genius of Alexander Farnese,
the exaggerated self-abnegation and the tragic fate of Orange,
all united to dissever this group of flourishing and kindred
provinces. The want of personal ambition on the part of
William the Silent inflicted, perhaps, a serious damage upon
his country. He believed a single chief requisite for the
united states; he might have been, but always refused to
become that chief; and yet he has been held up for centuries
by many writers as a conspirator and a self-seeking intriguer.
… 'These provinces,' said John of Nassau, 'are coming very
unwillingly into the arrangement with the Duke of Alençon
[soon afterwards made Duke of Anjou]. The majority feel much
more inclined to elect the Prince, who is daily, and without
intermission, implored to give his consent. … He refuses
only on this account—that it may not be thought that,
instead of religious freedom for the country, he has been
seeking a kingdom for himself and his own private advancement.
Moreover, he believes that the connexion with France will be
of more benefit to the country and to Christianity.' … The
unfortunate negotiations with Anjou, to which no man was more
opposed than Count John, proceeded therefore. In the meantime,
the sovereignty over the united provinces was provisionally
held by the national council, and, at the urgent solicitation
of the states-general, by the Prince. The Archduke Matthias,
whose functions were most unceremoniously brought to an end by
the transactions which we have been recording, took his leave
of the states, and departed in the month of October. … Thus
it was arranged that, for the present, at least, the Prince
should exercise sovereignty over Holland and Zealand; although
he had himself used his utmost exertions to induce those
provinces to join the rest of the United Netherlands in the
proposed election of Anjou.
{2270}
This, however, they sternly refused to do. There was also a
great disinclination felt by many in the other states to this
hazardous offer of their allegiance, and it was the personal
influence of Orange that eventually carried the measure
through. … By midsummer [1581] the Duke of Anjou made his
appearance in the western part of the Netherlands. The Prince
of Parma had recently come before Cambray with the intention
of reducing that important city. On the arrival of Anjou,
however, … Alexander raised the siege precipitately and
retired towards Tournay," to which he presently laid siege,
and which was surrendered to him in November.

_J. L. Motley,
The Rise of the Dutch Republic,
part 6, chapters 4-5 (volume 3)._

Meantime, the Duke of Anjou had visited England, paying court
to Queen Elizabeth, whom he hoped to marry, but who declined
the alliance after making the acquaintance of her suitor.
"Elizabeth made all the reparation in her power, by the
honours paid him on his dismissal. She accompanied him as far
as Canterbury, and sent him away under the convoy of the earl
of Leicester, her chief favourite; and with a brilliant suite
and a fleet of fifteen sail. Anjou was received at Antwerp
with equal distinction; and was inaugurated there on the 19th
of February [1582] as Duke of Brabant, Lothier, Limbourg, and
Guelders, with many other titles, of which he soon proved
himself unworthy. … During the rejoicings which followed
this inauspicious ceremony, Philip's proscription against the
Prince of Orange put forth its first fruits. The latter gave a
grand dinner in the chateau of Antwerp, which he occupied, on
the 18th of March, the birth-day of the duke of Anjou." As he
quitted the dining hall, he was shot in the cheek by a young
man who approached him with the pretence of offering a
petition, and who proved to be the tool of a Spanish merchant
at Antwerp, with whom Philip of Spain had contracted for the
procurement of the assassination. The wound inflicted was
severe but not fatal. "Within three months, William was able
to accompany the duke of Anjou in his visits to Ghent, Bruges,
and the other chief towns of Flanders; in each of which the
ceremony of inauguration was repeated. Several military
exploits now took place [the most important of them being the
capture of Oudenarde, after a protracted siege, by the Prince
of Parma]. … The duke of Anjou, intemperate, inconstant, and
unprincipled, saw that his authority was but the shadow of
power. … The French officers, who formed his suite and
possessed all his confidence, had no difficulty in raising his
discontent into treason against the people with whom he had
made a solemn compact. The result of their councils was a
deep-laid plot against Flemish liberty; and its execution was
ere-long attempted. He sent secret orders to the governors of
Dunkirk, Bruges, Termonde, and other towns, to seize on and
hold them in his name; reserving for himself the infamy of the
enterprise against Antwerp. To prepare for its execution, he
caused his numerous army of French and Swiss to approach the
city." Then, on the 17th of January, 1583, with his body guard
of 200 horse, he suddenly attacked and slew the Flemish guards
at one of the gates and admitted the troops waiting outside.
"The astonished but intrepid citizens, recovering from their
confusion, instantly flew to arms. All differences in religion
or politics were forgotten in the common danger to their
freedom. … The ancient spirit of Flanders seemed to animate
all. Workmen, armed with the instruments of their various
trades, started from their shops and flung themselves upon the
enemy. … The French were driven successively from the
streets and ramparts. … The duke of Anjou saved himself by
flight, and reached Termonde. His loss in this base enterprise
[known as the French Fury] amounted to 1,500; while that of
the citizens did not exceed 80 men. The attempts
simultaneously made on the other towns succeeded at Dunkirk
and Termonde; but all the others failed. The character of the
Prince of Orange never appeared so thoroughly great as at this
crisis. With wisdom and magnanimity rarely equalled and never
surpassed, he threw himself and his authority between the
indignation of the country and the guilt of Anjou; saving the
former from excess and the latter from execration. The
disgraced and discomfited duke proffered to the states excuses
as mean as they were hypocritical. … A new treaty was
negotiated, confirming Anjou in his former station, with
renewed security against any future treachery on his part. He
in the mean time retired to France," where he died, June 10,
1584. Exactly one month afterwards (July 10), Prince William
was murdered, in his house, at Delft, by Balthazar Gerard, one
of the many assassins whom Philip II. and Parma had so
persistently sent against him. He was shot as he placed his
foot upon the first step of the great stair in his house,
after dining in a lower apartment, and he died in a few
moments.

_T. C. Grattan,
History of the Netherlands,
chapter 13._

ALSO IN:
_J. A. Froude,
History of England: Reign of Elizabeth,
chapters 26, 29, 31-32 (volume 5-6)._

_D. Campbell,
The Puritan in Holland, England, and America,
chapter 4 (volume 1)._

NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1584-1585.
Limits of the United Provinces and the Spanish Provinces.
The Republican constitution of the United Provinces,
and the organization of their government.
Disgraceful surrender of Ghent.
Practical recovery of Flanders and Brabant by the Spanish king.

At the time of the assassination of the Prince of Orange, "the
limit of the Spanish or 'obedient' Provinces, on the one hand,
and of the United Provinces on the other, cannot … be
briefly and distinctly stated. The memorable treason—or, as
it was called, the 'reconciliation' of the Walloon Provinces
in the year 1583-4—had placed the Provinces of Hainault,
Arthois, Douay, with the flourishing cities, Arras,
Valenciennes, Lille, Tournay, and others—all Celtic
Flanders, in short—in the grasp of Spain. Cambray was still
held by the French governor, Seigneur de Balagny, who had
taken advantage of the Duke of Anjou's treachery to the
States, to establish himself in an unrecognized but practical
petty sovereignty, in defiance both of France and Spain; while
East Flanders and South Brabant still remained a disputed
territory, and the immediate field of contest. With these
limitations, it may be assumed, for general purposes, that the
territory of the United States was that of the modern Kingdom
of the Netherlands, while the obedient Provinces occupied what
is now the territory of Belgium. …
{2271}
What now was the political position of the United Provinces at
this juncture? The sovereignty which had been held by the
Estates, ready to be conferred respectively upon Anjou and
Orange, remained in the hands of the Estates. There was no
opposition to this theory. … The people, as such, claimed no
sovereignty. … What were the Estates? … The great
characteristic of the Netherland government was the
municipality. Each Province contained a large number of
cities, which were governed by a board of magistrates, varying
in number from 20 to 40. This college, called the Vroedschap
(Assembly of Sages), consisted of the most notable citizens,
and was a self-electing body—a close corporation—the members
being appointed for life, from the citizens at large. Whenever
vacancies occurred from death or loss of citizenship, the
college chose new members—sometimes immediately, sometimes by
means of a double or triple selection of names, the choice of
one from among which was offered to the stadtholder [governor,
or sovereign's deputy] of the province. This functionary was
appointed by the Count, as he was called, whether Duke of
Bavaria or of Burgundy, Emperor, or King. After the abjuration
of Philip [1581], the governors were appointed by the Estates
of each Province. The Sage-Men chose annually a board of
senators, or schepens, whose functions were mainly judicial;
and there were generally two, and sometimes three,
burgomasters, appointed in the same way. This was the popular
branch of the Estates. But, besides this body of
representatives, were the nobles, men of ancient lineage and
large possessions, who had exercised, according to the general
feudal law of Europe, high, low, and intermediate jurisdiction
upon their estates, and had long been recognized as an
integral part of the body politic, having the right to appear,
through delegates of their order, in the provincial and in the
general assemblies. Regarded as a machine for bringing the
most decided political capacities into the administration of
public affairs, and for organizing the most practical
opposition to the system of religious tyranny, the Netherland
constitution was a healthy, and, for the age, an enlightened
one. … Thus constituted was the commonwealth upon the death
of William the Silent. The gloom produced by that event was
tragical. Never in human history was a more poignant and
universal sorrow for the death of any individual. The despair
was, for a brief season, absolute; but it was soon succeeded
by more lofty sentiments. … Even on the very day of the
murder, the Estates of Holland, then sitting at Delft, passed
a resolution 'to maintain the good cause, with God's help, to
the uttermost, without sparing gold or blood.' … The next
movement, after the last solemn obsequies had been rendered to
the Prince, was to provide for the immediate wants of his
family. For the man who had gone into the revolt with almost
royal revenues, left his estate so embarrassed that his
carpets, tapestries, household linen—nay, even his silver
spoons, and the very clothes of his wardrobe—were disposed of
at auction for the benefit of his creditors. He left eleven
children—a son and daughter by the first wife, a son and
daughter by Anna of Saxony, six daughters by Charlotte of
Bourbon, and an infant, Frederic Henry, born six months before
his death. The eldest son, Philip William, had been a captive
in Spain for seventeen years, having been kidnapped from
school, in Leyden, in the year 1567. He had already become …
thoroughly Hispaniolized under the masterly treatment of the
King and the Jesuits. … The next son was Maurice, then 17
years of age. … Grandson of Maurice of Saxony, whom he
resembled in visage and character, he was summoned by every
drop of blood in his veins to do life-long battle with the
spirit of Spanish absolutism, and he was already girding
himself for his life's work. … Very soon afterwards the
States General established a State Council, as a provisional
executive board, for the term of three months, for the
Provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Friesland, and such
parts of Flanders and Brabant as still remained in the Union.
At the head of this body was placed young Maurice, who
accepted the responsible position, after three days'
deliberation. … The Council consisted of three members from
Brabant, two from Flanders, four from Holland, three from
Zeeland, two from Utrecht, one from Mechlin, and three from
Friesland—eighteen in all. They were empowered and enjoined
to levy troops by land and sea, and to appoint naval and
military officers; to establish courts of admiralty, to expend
the moneys voted by the States, to maintain the ancient
privileges of the country, and to see that all troops in
service of the Provinces made oath of fidelity to the Union.
Diplomatic relations, questions of peace and war, the
treaty-making power, were not entrusted to the Council,
without the knowledge and consent of the States General, which
body was to be convoked twice a year by the State Council. …
Alexander of Parma … was swift to take advantage of the
calamity which had now befallen the rebellious Provinces. …
In Holland and Zeeland the Prince's blandishments were of no
avail. … In Flanders and Brabant the spirit was less noble.
Those provinces were nearly lost already. Bruges [which had
made terms with the King early in 1584] seconded Parma's
efforts to induce its sister-city Ghent to imitate its own
baseness in surrendering without a struggle; and that
powerful, turbulent, but most anarchical little commonwealth
was but too ready to listen to the voice of the tempter. …
Upon the 17th August [1584] Dendermonde surrendered. … Upon
the 7th September Vilvoorde capitulated, by which event the
water-communication between Brussels and Antwerp was cut off,
Ghent, now thoroughly disheartened, treated with Parma
likewise; and upon the 17th September made its reconciliation
with the King. The surrender of so strong and important a
place was as disastrous to the cause of the patriots as it was
disgraceful to the citizens themselves. It was, however, the
result of an intrigue which had been long spinning. … The
noble city of Ghent—then as large as Paris, thoroughly
surrounded with moats, and fortified with bulwarks, ravelins,
and counterscarps, constructed of earth, during the previous
two years, at great expense, and provided with bread and meat,
powder and shot, enough to last a year—was ignominiously
surrendered. The population, already a very reduced and
slender one for the great extent of the place and its former
importance, had been estimated at 70,000.
{2272}
The number of houses was 35,000, so that, as the inhabitants
were soon farther reduced to one-half, there remained but one
individual to each house. On the other hand, the 25
monasteries and convents in the town were repeopled. … The
fall of Brussels was deferred till March, and that of Mechlin
(19th July, 1585), and of Antwerp [see below] (19th August,
1585), till Midsummer of the following year; but the surrender
of Ghent foreshadowed the fate of Flanders and Brabant. Ostend
and Sluys, however, were still in the hands of the patriots,
and with them the control of the whole Flemish coast. The
command of the sea was destined to remain for centuries with
the new republic."

_J. L. Motley,
History of the United Netherlands,
chapter 1 (volume 1)._

NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1584-1585.
The Siege and surrender of Antwerp.
Decay of the city.

"After the fall of Ghent, Farnese applied himself earnestly to
the siege of Antwerp, one of the most memorable recorded in
history. The citizens were animated in their defence by the
valour and talent of Ste Aldegonde. It would be impossible to
detail with minuteness in this general history the various
contrivances resorted to on either side for the attack and the
defence; and we must therefore content ourselves with briefly
adverting to that stupendous monument of Farnese's military
genius, the bridge which he carried across the Scheldt, below
Antwerp, in order to cut off the communication of the city
with the sea and the maritime provinces. From the depth and
wideness of the river, the difficulty of finding the requisite
materials, and of transporting them to the place selected in
the face of an enemy that was superior on the water, the
project was loudly denounced by Farnese's officers as
visionary and impracticable; yet in spite of all these
discouragements and difficulties, as the place seemed
unapproachable in the usual way, he steadily persevered, and
at last succeeded in an undertaking which, had he failed,
would have covered him with perpetual ridicule. The spot fixed
upon for the bridge was between Ordam and Kalloo, where the
river is both shallower and narrower than at other parts. The
bridge consisted of piles driven into the water to such
distance as its depth would allow; which was 200 feet on the
Flanders side and 900 feet on that of Brabant. The interval
between the piles, which was 12 feet broad, was covered with
planking; but at the extremities towards the centre of the
river the breadth was extended to 40 feet, thus forming two
forts, or platforms, mounted with cannon. There was still,
however, an interstice in the middle of between 1,000 and
1,100 feet, through which the ships of the enemy, favoured by
the wind and tide, or by the night, could manage to pass
without any considerable loss, and which it therefore became
necessary to fill up. This was accomplished by mooring across
it the hulls of 32 vessels, at intervals of about 20 feet
apart, and connecting them together with planks. Each vessel
was planted with artillery and garrisoned by about 30 men;
while the bridge was protected by a flota of vessels moored on
each side, above and below, at a distance of about 200 feet.
During the construction of the bridge, which lasted half a
year, the citizens of Antwerp viewed with dismay the progress
of a work that was not only to deprive them of their maritime
commerce, but also of the supplies necessary for their
subsistence and defence. At length they adopted a plan
suggested by Gianbelli, an Italian engineer, and resolved to
destroy the bridge by means of fire-ships, which seem to have
been first used on this occasion. Several such vessels were
sent down the river with a favourable tide and wind, of which
two were charged with 6,000 or 7,000 lbs. of gunpowder each,
packed in solid masonry, with various destructive missiles.
One of these vessels went ashore before reaching its
destination; the other arrived at the bridge and exploded with
terrible effect. Curiosity to behold so novel a spectacle had
attracted vast numbers of the Spaniards, who lined the shores
as well as the bridge. Of these 800 were killed by the
explosion, and by the implements of destruction discharged
with the powder; a still greater number were maimed and
wounded, and the bridge itself was considerably damaged.
Farnese himself was thrown to the earth and lay for a time
insensible. The besieged, however, did not follow up their
plan with vigour. They allowed Farnese time to repair the
damage, and the Spaniards, being now on the alert, either
diverted the course of the fire-ships that were subsequently
sent against them, or suffered them to pass the bridge through
openings made for the purpose. In spite of the bridge,
however, the beleaguered citizens might still have secured a
transit down the river by breaking through the dykes between
Antwerp and Lillo, and sailing over the plains thus laid under
water, for which purpose it was necessary to obtain possession
of the counter-dyke of Kowenstyn; but after a partial success,
too quickly abandoned by Hohenlohe and Ste Aldegonde, they
were defeated in a bloody battle which they fought upon the
dyke. Antwerp was now obliged to capitulate; and as Farnese
was anxious to put an end to so long a siege, it obtained more
favourable terms than could have been anticipated (August 17th
1585). The prosperity of this great commercial city received,
however, a severe blow from its capture by the Spaniards. A
great number of the citizens, as well as of the inhabitants of
Brabant and Flanders, removed to Amsterdam and Middelburg."

_T. H. Dyer,
History of Modern Europe,
book 3, chapter 9 (volume 2)._

The downfall of the prosperity of the great capital "was
instantaneous. The merchants and industrious citizens all
wandered away from the place which had been the seat of a
world-wide traffic. Civilization and commerce departed, and in
their stead were the citadel and the Jesuits."

_J. L. Motley,
History of the United Netherlands,
chapter 5 (volume 1)._

ALSO IN:
_F. Schiller,
Siege of Antwerp._

NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1585-1586.
Proffered sovereignty of the United Provinces
declined by France and England.
Delusive English succors.
The queen's treachery and Leicester's incompetency.
Useless battle at Zutphen.

"It was natural that so small a State, wasted by its
protracted struggles, should desire, more earnestly than ever,
an alliance with some stronger power; and it was from among
States supposed to have sympathies with Protestants, that such
an alliance was sought. From the Protestant countries of
Germany there was no promise of help; and the eyes of the
Dutch diplomatists were therefore turned towards France and
England. In France, the Huguenots, having recovered from St.
Bartholomew, now enjoyed toleration; and were a rising and
hopeful party, under the patronage of Henry of Navarre.
{2273}
If the king of France would protect Holland from Philip, and
extend to its people the same toleration which he allowed his
own subjects, Holland offered him the sovereignty of the
united provinces. This tempting offer was declined: for a new
policy was now to be declared, which united France and Spain
in a bigoted crusade against the Protestant faith. The League,
under the Duke de Guise, gained a fatal ascendency over the
weak and frivolous king, Henry III., and held dominion in
France. … Nor was the baneful influence of the League
confined to France: it formed a close alliance with Philip and
the Pope, with whom it was plotting the overthrow of
Protestant England, the subjection of the revolted provinces
of Spain, and the general extirpation of heresy throughout
Europe. … The only hope of the Netherlands was now in
England, which was threatened by a common danger; and envoys
were sent to Elizabeth with offers of the sovereignty, which
had been declined by France. So little did the Dutch statesmen
as yet contemplate a republic, that they offered their country
to any sovereign, in return for protection. Had bolder
counsels prevailed, Elizabeth might, at once, have saved the
Netherlands, and placed herself at the head of the Protestants
of Europe. She saw her own danger, if Philip should recover
the provinces: but she held her purse-strings with the grasp
of a miser: she dreaded an open rupture with Spain; and she
was unwilling to provoke her own Catholic subjects. Sympathy
with the Protestant cause, she had none. … She desired to
afford as much assistance as would protect her own realm
against Philip, at the least possible cost, without
precipitating a war with Spain. She agreed to send men and
money: but required Flushing, Brill, and Rammekens to be held
as a security for her loans. She refused the sovereignty of
the States: but she despatched troops to the Netherlands, and
sent her favourite, the Earl of Leicester, to command them. As
she had taken the rebellious subjects of Spain under her
protection, Philip retaliated by the seizure of British ships.
Spanish vengeance was not averted, while the Netherlands
profited little by her aid."

_Sir T. E. May,
Democracy in Europe,
chapter 11 (volume 2)._