Chapter IV: , VII (161)

As its southwestern and southeastern boundaries were
eventually settled by treaty with Spain [see FLORIDA: A. D.
1819-1821], the Louisiana purchase embraced 2,300 square miles
in the present state of Alabama, west of the Perdido and on
the gulf, below latitude 31° north; 3,600 square miles in the
present state of Mississippi, south of the same latitude; the
whole of the present states of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri,
Iowa, Nebraska, and the Dakotas; Minnesota, west of the
Mississippi; Kansas, all but the southwest corner; the whole
of the Indian Territory, and so much of Colorado, Wyoming, and
Montana as lies on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains.
If it is held that the French claim was good to the Pacific,
then we may say that we owe the remainder of Montana, with
Idaho, Oregon and Washington to the same great purchase.

_T. Donaldson,
The Public Domain,
page 105._

On the constitutional and political aspects of the Louisiana
purchase,

See UNITED STATES: A. D. 1803.

Detailed accounts of the interesting circumstances and
incidents connected with the negotiation at Paris will be
found in the following works:—

_H. Adams,
History of the United States:
First Administration of Jefferson;
volume 2, chapters 1-3._

_D. O. Gilman,
James Monroe,
chapter 4._

_B. Marbois,
History of Louisiana,
part 2._

_American State Papers: Foreign Relations,
volume 2, pages 506-583._

{2051}

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1804-1805.
Lewis and Clark's exploration
of the northwestern region of the purchase, to the Pacific.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1804-1805.

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1804-1812.
The purchase divided into
the Territories of Orleans and Louisiana.
The first named becomes the State of Louisiana;
the second becomes the Territory of Missouri.

"On the 26th of March, 1804, Congress passed an act dividing
the province into two parts on the 33d parallel of latitude,
the present northern boundary of Louisiana, and establishing
for the lower portion a distinct territorial government, under
the title of the territory of Orleans. The act was to go into
effect in the following October. One of its provisions was the
interdiction of the slave-trade. … The labors of the
legislative council began on the 4th of December. A charter of
incorporation was given by it to the city of New Orleans."

_G: E. Waring, Jr., and G. W. Cable,
History and Present Condition of New Orleans
(United States Tenth Census, volume 19). pages 32-33._

"All north of the 33d parallel of north latitude was formed
into a district, and styled the District of Louisiana. For
judicial and administrative purposes this district, or upper
Louisiana as we shall continue to call it, was attached to the
territory of Indiana." But in March, 1805, Congress passed an
act "which erected the district into a territory of the first
or lowest grade, and changed its title from the District to
the Territory of Louisiana." Seven years later, in June 1812,
the Territory of Orleans (the lower Louisiana of old) having
been received into the federal Union as the State of
Louisiana, the territory which bore the ancient name was
advanced by act of Congress "from the first to the second
grade of territories, and its name changed to Missouri."

_L. Carr,
Missouri,
chapter 5._

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1806-1807.
Burr's Filibustering conspiracy.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1806-1807.

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1812.
The Territory of Orleans admitted to the Union as
the State of Louisiana.

"The population of the Territory of Orleans had been augmented
annually by emigration from the United States. According to
the census of 1810, the whole territory, exclusive of the
Florida parishes, contained an aggregate of 76,550 souls. Of
this number, the city of New Orleans and its precincts
contained 24,552 persons, leaving 52,000 souls for the
remainder of the territory. Besides these, the inhabitants of
the Florida parishes amounted, probably, to not less than
2,500, including slaves. … Congress, by an act approved
February 11th, 1811, … authorized the election of a
convention to adopt a Constitution, preparatory to the
admission of the Territory into the Union as an independent
state. The convention, consisting of 60 delegates from the
original parishes, met according to law, on the first Monday
in November, and concluded its labors on the 22d day of
January following, having adopted a Constitution for the
proposed new 'State of Louisiana.' … The Constitution was
accepted by Congress, and the State of Louisiana was formally
admitted into the Union on the 8th day of April, 1812, upon an
equal footing with the original states, from and after the
30th day of April, it being the ninth anniversary of the
treaty of Paris. A few days subsequently, a 'supplemental act'
of Congress extended the limits of the new state by the
addition of the Florida parishes.

See FLORIDA: A. D. 1810-1813.

This gave it the boundaries it has at present."

_J. W. Monette,
Discovery and Settlement of the Valley of the Mississippi,
book 5, chapter 15 (volume 2)._

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1813-1814.
The Creek War.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1813-1814 (AUGUST-APRIL).

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1815.
Jackson's defense of New Orleans.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1815 (JANUARY).

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1861 (January).
Secession from the Union.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1861 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY).

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1862 (April).
Farragut's capture of New Orleans.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (APRIL: ON THE MISSISSIPPI).

LOUISIANA: A. D.1862 (May-December).
New Orleans under General Butler.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (MAY-DECEMBER: LOUISIANA).

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1862 (June).
Appointment of a Military Governor.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (MARCH-JUNE).

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1864.
Reconstruction of the state under President Lincoln's plan.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1863-1864 (DECEMBER-JULY).

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1864.
The Red River Expedition.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (MARCH-MAY: LOUISIANA).

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1865.
President Johnson's recognition of the reconstructed state
government.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1865 (MAY-JULY).

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1865-1867.
The first Reconstruction experiment.
The Riot at New Orleans.
Establishment of military rule.

"In 1865 the returned Confederates, restored to citizenship by
the President's amnesty proclamation soon got control of
almost all the State [as reorganized under the constitution
framed and adopted in 1864].

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1865 (MAY-JULY).

The Legislature was in their hands, as well as most of the
State and municipal offices; so, when the President, on the
20th of August, 1866, by proclamation, extended his previous
instructions regarding civil affairs in Texas so as to have
them apply to all the seceded States, there at once began in
Louisiana a system of discriminative legislation directed
against the freedmen, that led to flagrant wrongs in the
enforcement of labor contracts, and in the remote parishes to
numbers of outrages and murders. To remedy this deplorable
condition of things, it was proposed, by those who had
established the government of 1864, to remodel the
constitution of the State; and they sought to do this by
reassembling the convention, that body before its adjournment
having provided for reconvening under certain conditions, in
obedience to the call of its president. Therefore, early in
the summer of 1866, many members of this convention met in
conference at New Orleans, and decided that a necessity
existed for reconvening the delegates, and a proclamation was
issued accordingly by B. K. Howell, President pro tempore.
{2052}
Mayor John T. Monroe and the other officials of New Orleans
looked upon this proposed action as revolutionary, and by the
time the convention assembled (July 30) such bitterness of
feeling prevailed that efforts were made by the mayor and city
police to suppress the meeting. A bloody riot followed,
resulting in the killing and wounding of about 160 persons. I
happened [the writer is General Sheridan, then in command of
the Military Division of the Gulf] to be absent from the city
at the time, returning from Texas, where I had been called by
affairs on the Rio Grande. On my way up from the mouth of the
Mississippi I was met on the night of July 30 by one of my
staff, who reported what had occurred, giving the details of
the massacre—no milder term is fitting—and informing me
that, to prevent further slaughter, General Baird, the senior
military officer present, had assumed control of the municipal
government. On reaching the city I made an investigation, and
that night sent [a brief report, which was followed, on the
6th of August, by an extended account of the facts of the
riot, containing the following statements]: … 'The
convention assembled at 12 M. on the 30th, the timid members
absenting themselves because the tone of the general public
was ominous of trouble. … About 1 P. M. a procession of say
from 60 to 130 colored men marched up Burgundy Street and
across Canal Street toward the convention, carrying an
American flag. These men had about one pistol to every ten
men, and canes and clubs in addition. While crossing Canal
Street a row occurred. … On arrival at the front of the
Institute [where the convention was held] there was some
throwing of brickbats by both sides. The police, who had been
held well in hand, were vigorously marched to the scene of
disorder. The procession entered the Institute with the flag,
about 6 or 8 remaining outside. A row occurred between a
policeman and one of these colored mob, and a shot was again
fired by one of the parties, which led to an indiscriminate
fire on the building through the windows by the policemen.
This had been going on for a short time, when a white flag was
displayed from the windows of the Institute, whereupon the
firing ceased, and the police rushed into the building. From
the testimony of wounded men, and others who were inside the
building, the policemen opened an indiscriminate fire upon the
audience until they had emptied their revolvers, when they
retired, and those inside barricaded the doors. The door was
broken in, and the firing again commenced, when many of the
colored and white people either escaped throughout the door or
were passed out by the policemen inside; but as they came out
the policemen who formed the circle nearest the building fired
upon them, and they were again fired upon by the citizens that
formed the outer circle. Many of those wounded and taken
prisoners, and others who were prisoners and not wounded, were
fired upon by their captors and by citizens. The wounded were
stabbed while lying on the ground, and their heads beaten with
brickbats. … Some were killed and wounded several squares
from the scene.' … Subsequently a military commission
investigated the subject of the riot, taking a great deal of
testimony. The commission substantially confirmed the
conclusions given in my despatches, and still later there as
an investigation by a select committee of the House of
Representatives. … A list of the killed and wounded was
embraced in the committee's report, and among other
conclusions reached were the following: … 'This riotous
attack upon the convention, with its terrible results of
massacre and murder, was not an accident. It was the
determined purpose of the mayor of the city of New Orleans to
break up this convention by armed force.' … The committee
held that no legal government existed in Louisiana, and
recommended the temporary establishment of a provisional
government therein." In the following March the Military
Reconstruction Acts were passed by Congress.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1867 (MARCH).

General Sheridan was assigned to the command of the fifth
military district therein defined, consisting of Louisiana and
Texas.

_P. H. Sheridan,
Personal Memoirs,
volume 2, chapters 10-11._

ALSO IN:
_Report of Select Committee on New Orleans Riot,
39th Congress, 2d Session, H. R. Report, Number 16._

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1868.
Reconstruction complete.
Restored representation in Congress.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1868-1870.

----------LOUISIANA: End----------

LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY:
Threatened by the Rebel Army under Bragg.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (JUNE-OCTOBER: TENNESSEE-KENTUCKY).

----------LOUVAIN: Start--------

LOUVAIN: A. D. 1635.
Unsuccessful siege by the French.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1635-1638.

LOUVAIN: A. D. 1706.
Taken by Marlborough and the Allies.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1706-1707.

----------LOUVAIN: End--------

LOUVAIN, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (FEBRUARY-APRIL).

LOUVRE, The.

"The early history of the Louvre is involved in great
obscurity. The name of its founder and the period of its
erection are alike unknown; the first notice of it we meet
with upon record is in the 7th century, when Dagobert kept
here his horses and hounds. The kings [Merovingeans] called
'fainéans' often visited it, when after dinner they rode in a
sort of coach through the forest, which covered this side of
the river, and in the evening returned in a boat, fishing by
the way, to the city, where they supped and slept. There is no
mention of this royal dwelling under the second, nor even
under the third race of kings, till the reign of Philip
Augustus. About the year 1204, that prince converted it into a
kind of citadel, surrounded with wide ditches and flanked with
towers. … The walls erected by Philip Augustus did not take
in the Louvre, but after having remained outside of Paris more
than six centuries, it was enclosed by the walls begun in
1367, under Charles V., and finished in 1383, under Charles
VI. … Charles IX., Henry III., Henry IV., and Louis XIII.,
inhabited the Louvre and added to its buildings. Nothing
remains of the old château of Philip Augustus, which Charles
V. repaired; the most ancient part now in existence is that
called 'le Vieux Louvre,' begun by Francis I. in 1539, and
finished by Henry II. in 1548."

_History of Paris
(London, 1827), chapter 2 (volume 2)._

{2053}

The origin of the word Louvre is believed to be a Saxon word,
'Leowar' or 'Lower,' which meant a fortified camp. … Francis
I. did little more than decide the fate of the old Louvre by
introducing the new fashion. His successors went on with the
work; and the progress of it may be followed, reign after
reign, till the last visible fragment of the Gothic castle had
been ruthlessly carted away. … Vast as is the Louvre that we
know, it is as nothing in comparison with the prodigious
scheme imagined by Richelieu and Louis XIII.; a scheme which,
though never carried out, gave a very strong impulse to the
works, and ensured the completion of the present building, at
least in a subsequent reign. … Happily for the Louvre Louis
XIV. interested himself in it before he engulfed his millions
at Marly and Versailles. … The sums of money expended on the
Louvre and Tuileries defy all calculation. … The greatest
spender on these palaces was Napoleon III."

_P. G. Hamerton.
Paris in Old and Present Times,
chapter 6. _

LOVERS, War of the.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1578-1580.

LOW CHURCH.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1689 (APRIL-AUGUST).

LOW COUNTRIES, The.

See NETHERLANDS.

LOWLANDS OF SCOTLAND.

See SCOTCH HIGHLAND and LOWLAND.

LOWOSITZ, OR LOBOSITZ, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1756.

LOYALISTS, American.

See TORIES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.

LOYOLA, and the founding of the Order of Jesus.

See JESUITS: A. D. 1540-1556.

----------LUBECK: Start--------

LUBECK:
Origin and rise.

"Near the mouth of the river Trave there had long existed a
small settlement of pirates or fishermen. The convenience of
the harbour had led to this settlement and it had been much
frequented by Christian merchants. The unsettled state of the
country, however, afforded them little security, and it had
been often taken and plundered by the Pagan freebooters. When
Henry acquired the dominion of the soil [Henry the Lion, Duke
of Saxony, who subdued the heathen Wendish tribe of the
Oborites, A. D. 1165, and added their country to his
dominions] he paid particular attention to this infant
establishment, and under the shadow of his power the city of
Lubeck (for so it became) arose on a broad and permanent
basis. He made it … the seat of a bishop; he also
established a mint and a custom-house, and by the grant of a
municipal government, he secured the personal, while he
prepared the way for the political, rights of its burghers.
The ancient name of the harbour was Wisby, and by a
proclamation addressed to the Danes, Norwegians, Swedes, and
Russians, he invited them to frequent it, with an assurance
that the ways should be open and secure by land and water. …
This judicious policy was rewarded by a rapid and large
increase to the wealth and commerce of Lubeck."

_Sir A. Halliday,
Annals of the House of Hanover,
volume 1, pages 229-230._

See, also, HANSA TOWNS.

LUBECK: A. D. 1801-1803.
One of six free cities which survived the Peace of Luneville.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1801-1803.

LUBECK: A. D. 1806.
Battle of French and Prussians.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1806 (OCTOBER).

LUBECK: A. D. 1810.
Annexation to France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1810 (FEBRUARY-DECEMBER).

LUBECK: A. D. 1810-1815.
Loss and recovery of autonomy as a "free city."

See CITIES, IMPERIAL AND FREE, OF GERMANY;
and VIENNA, CONGRESS OF.

LUBECK: A. D. 1866.
Surrender of free privileges.
Entrance into the Zollverein.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1888.

----------LUBECK: End--------

LUBECK, Treaty of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1627-1629.

LUCANIANS, The.

See SABINES; also, SAMNITES.

----------LUCCA: Start--------

LUCCA:
The founding of the city.

See MUTINA AND PARMA.

LUCCA: 8th Century.
The seat of Tuscan government.

See TUSCANY: A. D. 685-1115.

LUCCA: A. D. 1248-1278.
In the wars of the Guelfs and Ghibellines.

See FLORENCE: A. D. 1248-1278.

LUCCA: A. D. 1284-1293.
War with Pisa.

See PISA: A. D. 1063-1293.

LUCCA: A. D. 1314-1328.
The brief tyranny of Uguccione della Faggiuola,
and the longer despotism of Castruccio Castracani.
Erected into an imperial duchy.

See ITALY: A. D. 1313-1330.

LUCCA: A. D. 1335-1341.
Acquired by Mastino della Scala of Verona.
Sold to Florence.
Taken by Pisa.

See FLORENCE: A. D. 1341-1343.

LUCCA: A. D. 1805.
Conferred on the sister of Napoleon.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1804-1805.

LUCCA: A. D. 1814-1860.

After the fall of Napoleon Lucca was briefly occupied by the
Neapolitans; then, in the new arrangements, figured for some
time as a distinct duchy; afterwards became part of Tuscany,
until its absorption in the kingdom of Italy.

----------LUCCA: End--------

LUCENA, Battle of (1483).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1476-1492.

LUCERES, The.

See ROME: BEGINNING AND NAME.

LUCHANA, Battle of (1836).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1833-1846.

LUCIUS II., Pope, A. D. 1144-1145.

Lucius III., Pope, 1181-1185.

LUCKA, Battle of (1308).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1273-1308.

LUCKNOW, The siege of.

See INDIA: A. D. 1857 (MAY-AUGUST),
and 1857-1858 (JULY-JUNE).

LUCOTECIA.

See LUTETIA.

LUD.
Ancient Lydia.

LUDDITES, Rioting of the.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1812-1813.

LUDI. LUDI CIRCENSES, ETC.

"Public games (Ludi) formed an important feature in the
worship of the gods [in ancient Rome], and in the earlier ages
were always regarded as religious rites; so that the words
Ludi, Feriae and Dies Festi are frequently employed as
synonymous. Games celebrated every year upon a fixed day were
denominated Ludi Stati. Such were the Ludi Romani s. Magni,
held invariably on the 21st of September; the Megalesia on 4th
April; the Floralia on 28th April, and many others. …
Another classification of Ludi was derived from the place
where they were exhibited and the nature of the exhibition …

1. Ludi Circenses, chariot races and other games exhibited in
a circus.
2. Ludi Scenici, dramatic entertainments exhibited in a
theatre.
3. Munera Gladiatoria, prize-fights, which were usually
exhibited in an amphitheatre."

_W. Ramsay,
Manual of Roman Antiquity,
chapter 10._

{2054}

LUDI MAXIMI ROMANI.

See ROMAN CITY FESTIVAL.

LUDI SÆCULARES, The.

See SECULAR GAMES.

LUDOVICO (called Il Moro),
Duke of Milan, A. D. 1494-1500.

LUDWIG.

See LOUIS.

LUGDUNENSIS AND LUGDUNUM.

See LYONS: UNDER THE ROMANS.

LUGUVALLIUM.

The Roman military station at the western extremity of the
Roman wall in Britain; the site of the modern city of
Carlisle.

_H. M. Scarth,
Roman Britain,
chapter 8. _

LUITPERTUS, King of the Lombards, A. D. 700-701.

LUKETIA.

See LUTETIA.

LUNA: Destruction by the Northmen.

See NORMANS: A. D. 849-860.

LUND, Battle of (1676).

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1644-1697.

LUNDY, Benjamin, and the rise of the Abolitionists.

See SLAVERY, NEGRO: A. D. 1828-1832.

LUNDY'S LANE, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1814 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).

LUNEBURG, Duchy of.

See SAXONY: THE OLD DUCHY;
and A. D. 1178-1183.

LUNEBURG HEATH, Battle of (A. D. 880).

See EBBSDORF.

LUNEVILLE, The Treaty of (1801).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1801-1803.

LUPERCAL. LUPERCALIA.

The Lupercal was the wolf cave in which, according to Roman
legend, the twins, Romulus and Remus, were nursed by a
she-wolf. It was supposed to be situated at the foot of the
Palatine Hill. "The Lupercal is described by Dionysius as
having once been a large grotto, shaded with thick bushes and
large trees, and containing a copious spring of water. This
grotto was dedicated to Lupercus, an ancient Latin pastoral
divinity, who was worshipped by shepherds as the protector of
their flocks against wolves. A festival was held every year,
on the 15th of February, in the Lupercal, in honour of
Lupercus; the place contained an altar and a grove sacred to
the god. … Gibbon tells us the festival of the Lupercalia,
whose origin had preceded the foundation of Rome, was still
celebrated in the reign of Anthemus, 472 A.D."

_H. M. Westropp,
Early and Imperial Rome,
page 35._

"At the Lupercalia youths ran through the streets dressed
in goats' skins, beating all those they met with
strips of goats' leather."

_W. Ihne,
History of Rome,
book 1, chapter 13._

LURIS.

See GYPSIES.

LUSIGNAN, House of.

See JERUSALEM: A. D. 1149-1187, 1192-1229, and 1291;
also, CYPRUS: A. D. 1191, and 1192-1489.

LUSITANIA. LUSITANIANS.

The Lusitani or Lusitanians were the people who resisted the
Roman conquest of Spain most obstinately—with even more
resolution than their neighbors and kinsmen, the Celtiberians.
In 153 B. C. they defeated a Roman army, which lost 6,000 men.
The following year they inflicted another defeat, on the
prætor Mummius, who lost 9,000 of his soldiers. Again, in 151,
the prætor Galba suffered a loss of 7,000 men at their hands.
But, in 150, Galba ravaged the Lusitanian country so
effectually that they sued for peace. Pretending to arrange
terms of friendship with them, this infamous Roman persuaded
three large bands of the Lusitanians to lay down their arms,
which being done he surrounded them with his troops and
massacred them in cold blood. One of the few who escaped was a
man named Viriathus, who became thenceforth the leader of his
surviving countrymen in a guerrilla warfare which lasted for
ten years, and which cost the Romans thousands of men. In the
end they could not vanquish Viriathus, but basely bribed some
traitors in his own camp to murder him. The Roman province
which was afterwards formed out of the country of the
Lusitanians, and which took their name, has been mistakenly
identified with the modern kingdom of Portugal, which it
coincided with only in part.

_W. Ihne,
History of Rome,
book 5, chapter 6 (volume 3)._

ALSO IN:
_H. M. Stephens,
The Story of Portugal,
chapter 1._

See PORTUGAL: EARLY HISTORY.

On the settlement of the Alans,

See SPAIN: A. D. 409-414.

LUSTRUM.

After the [Roman] Censors had concluded the various duties
committed to their charge, they proceeded in the last place to
offer up, on behalf of the whole Roman people, the great
expiatory sacrifice called Lustrum, and this being offered up
once only in the space of five years, the term Lustrum is
frequently employed to denote that space of time. … On the
day fixed, the whole body of the people were summoned to
assemble in the Campus Martius in martial order (exercitus)
ranked according to their Classes and Centuries, horse and
foot. The victims, consisting of a sow, a sheep, and a bull,
whence the sacrifice was termed Suovetaurilia, before being
led to the altar, were carried thrice round the multitude, who
were then held to be purified and absolved from sin, and while
the immolation took place the Censor recited a set form of
prayer for the preservation and aggrandizement of the Roman
State."

_W. Ramsay,
Manual of Roman Antiquity,
chapter 5._

LUTETIA, LUKETIA, LUCOTECIA.

The beginning of the great city of Paris was represented by a
small town named as above—the stronghold of the Gallic people
called the Parisii—built on one of the islands in the Seine
which Paris now covers and surrounds.

See PARIS, BEGINNING OF.

LUTHER, Martin, and the Reformation.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1516-1517, 1517, 1517-1521,
1521-1522, 1522-1525, 1525-1529, 1530-1531;
also, GERMANY: A. D. 1530-1532.

LUTHER: On Education.

See EDUCATION, RENAISSANCE: GERMANY.

LUTTER, Battle of (1626).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1624-1626.

LÜTZEN, Battle of (1632).
Death of Gustavus Adolphus.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1631-1632.

LÜTZEN, OR GROSS GÖRSCHEN, Battle of (1813).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (APRIL-MAY).

LUXEMBURG, The House of:
Its aggrandizement in the Empire, in Bohemia, Hungary,
and Brandenburg.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1308-1313, and 1347-1493;
also, HUNGARY: A. D. 1301-1442;
and BRANDENBURG: A. D. 1168=1417.

----------LUXEMBURG: Start--------

{2055}

LUXEMBURG: A. D. 1713.
Ceded to Holland.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

LUXEMBURG: A. D. 1795.
Siege and capture by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1795 (JUNE-DECEMBER).

LUXEMBURG: A. D. 1867.
Separated from Germany and formed into a neutral state.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1866-1870.

----------LUXEMBURG: End--------

LUZZARA, Battle of (1702).

See ITALY: A. D. 1701-1713.

LYCEUM, The Athenian.

See ACADEMY, THE ATHENIAN;
and GYMNASIA, GREEK;
also, relative to the suppression of the Lyceum,
see ATHENS: A. D. 529.

LYCIAN LEAGUE, The.

"Probably the best constructed Federal Government that the
ancient world beheld. The account given by Strabo, our sole
authority, is so full, clear, and brief, that I cannot do
better than translate it. The 'ancestral constitution of the
Lykian League' is described by the great geographer in these
words: 'There are three and twenty cities which have a share
in the suffrage, and they come together from each city in the
common Federal Assembly, choosing for their place of meeting
any city which they think best. And, among the cities, the
greatest are possessed of three votes apiece, the middle ones
of two, and the rest of one; and in the same proportion they
pay taxes, and take their share of other public burthens. …
And, in the Federal Assembly, first the Lykiarch is chosen and
then the other Magistrates of the League, and bodies of
Federal Judges are appointed; and formerly they used to
consult about war, and peace, and alliance; this now, of
course, they cannot do, but these things must needs rest with
the Romans.' … On the practical working of this constitution
Strabo bestows the highest praise. Lykia was, in his day, a
Roman dependency, but it retained its own laws and internal
government."

_E. A. Freeman,
History of Federal Government,
chapter 4, section 4._

LYCIANS, The.

The people who occupied in ancient times the extreme southern
peninsula of Asia Minor. "The ancients knew of no unmixed
population in this district. The Phœnicians explored the
Lycian Taurus as well as the Cilician; and by land also
Semitic tribes seem to have immigrated out of Syria and
Cilicia; and these tribes formed the tribe of the Solymi.
Another influx of population was conducted to this coast by
means of the Rhodian chain of islands: men of Crete came
across, who called themselves Termili or Trameli, and
venerated Sarpedon as their Hero. After an arduous struggle,
they gradually made themselves masters of the land encircled
by sea and rock. … From the mouth of the Xanthus the Cretans
entered the land. There Leto had first found a hospitable
reception; in Patara, near by, arose the first great temple of
Apollo, the god of light, or Lycius, with the worship of whom
the inhabitants of the land became subsequently to such a
degree identified as to receive themselves from the Greeks on
whose coasts they landed the same name as the god, viz.,
Lycians. … We know that the Lycians, in courage and
knowledge of the sea fully the equals of the most seafaring
nation of the Archipelago, from a desire of an orderly
political life, renounced at an early period the public
practice of piracy, which their neighbours in Pisidia and
Cilicia never relinquished. Their patriotism they proved in
heroic struggles, and in the quiet of home developed a greater
refinement of manners, to which the special honour in which
they held the female sex bears marked testimony."

_E. Curtius,
History of Greece,
book 1, chapter 3 (volume 1)._

LYCURGUS, Constitution of.

See SPARTA: THE CONSTITUTION.

LYDIANS, The.

"On the western coast of Asia Minor the nation of the Lydians,
which possessed the vallies of the Hermus and Mæander, had
early arrived at a monarchy and a point of civilization far in
advance of the stages of primitive life. … When the Greeks
forced the Phenicians from the islands of the Ægean sea, and
then, about the end of the eleventh and beginning of the tenth
century, B. C., landed on the western coast of Asia Minor, the
Lydians were not able any more than the Teucrians and Mysians
in the North, or the Carians in the South, to prevent the
establishment of the Greeks on their coasts, the loss of the
ancient native sanctuaries at Smyrna, Colophon, Ephesus, and
the founding of Greek cities in their land on the mouths of
the Lydian rivers, the Hermus and the Cayster, though the
Greek emigrants came in isolated expeditions over the sea. It
was on the Lydian coasts that the most important Greek cities
rose: Cyme, Phocæa, Smyrna, Colophon, Ephesus. Priene, Myus,
and Miletus were on the land of the Carians."

_M. Duncker,
History of Antiquity,
book 4, chapter 17._

"On the basis of a population related to the Phrygians and
Armenians arose the nation of the Lydians, which through its
original ancestor, Lud, would appear in Eastern tradition also
to be reckoned as a member of the Semitic family. As long as
we remain unacquainted with the spoken and written language of
the Lydians, it will be impossible to define with any accuracy
the mixture of peoples which here took place. But, speaking
generally, there is no doubt of the double relationship of
this people, and of its consequent important place in
civilization among the groups of the nations of Asia Minor.
The Lydians became on land, as the Phœnicians by sea, the
mediators between Hellas and Anterior Asia. … The Lydians
are the first among the nations of Asia Minor of whom we have
any intimate knowledge as a political community."

_E. Curtius,
History of Greece,
book 1, chapter 3 (volume 1)._

The first, perhaps legendary, dynasty of Lydia, called the
Atyadæ, was followed by one called the Herakleidæ by the
Greeks, which is said to have ruled over 500 years. The last
king of that family, Kandaules, was murdered, about B. C. 715,
by Gyges, who founded the dynasty of the Mermnadæ, under whom
the Lydian dominion was extended over most of Asia Minor, and
its kings contended on fairly equal terms with the power of
the Medes. But their monarchy was overthrown by Cyrus, B. C.
546, and the famous Crœsus, last of their line, ended his days
as an attendant and counselor of the Persian king.

_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapters 17 and 32._

Recent discoveries tend to the conclusion that the primitive
inhabitants of Lydia were of a race to which the Hittites
belonged.

_A. H. Sayce,
editor, Ancient Empires of the East,
appendix 4._

See, also,
ASIA MINOR: B. C. 724-539;
and PERSIA: B. C. 549-521.

{2056}

LYGIANS, The.

"Of all the invaders of Gaul [in the reign of Probus, A.
D.277] the most formidable were the Lygians, a distant people
who reigned over a wide domain on the frontiers of Poland and
Silesia. In the Lygian nation the Arii held the first rank by
their numbers and fierceness. 'The Arii' (it is thus that they
are described by the energy of Tacitus) 'study to improve by
art and circumstances the innate terrors of their barbarism.
Their shields are black, their bodies are painted black. They
choose for the combat the darkest hour of the night.' … Yet
the arms and discipline of the Romans easily discomfited these
horrid phantoms. The Lygii were defeated in a general
engagement, and Semno, the most renowned of their chiefs, fell
alive into the hands of Probus. That prudent emperor,
unwilling to reduce a brave people to despair, granted them an
honourable capitulation and permitted them to return in safety
to their native country. But the losses which they suffered in
the march, the battle, and the retreat, broke the power of the
nation; nor is the Lygian name ever repeated in the history
either of Germany or of the empire."

_E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 12._

"Lygii appears to have been the generic name of the Slavonians
on the Vistula. They are the same people as those called Lekhs
by Nestor, the Russian chronicler of the twelfth century.
These Lekhs are the ancestors of the Poles."

See
_Latham,
The Germania of Tacitus,
page 158._

_W. Smith,
Note to above, from Gibbon_.

"The Ligii were a widely-spread tribe, comprehending several
clans. Tacitus names the Harii [or Arii], Helvecones, Manimi,
Elisii, and Nahanarvali. Their territory was between the Oder
and Vistula, and would include the greater part of Poland, and
probably a portion of Silesia."

_Church and Brodribb,
Geographical Notes to the Germany of Tacitus._

"The Elysii are supposed to have given name to Silesia."

_Note to the Oxford Translation of Tacitus: Germany,
chapter 43._

LYKIANS, The.

See LYCIANS.

LYMNE, in Roman times.

See PORTUS LEMANIS.

LYON, General Nathaniel:
Campaign in Missouri, and death.

See MISSOURI; A. D. 1861 (FEBRUARY-JULY);
and UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1861 (JULY-SEPTEMBER; MISSOURI).

----------LYONS: Start--------

LYONS:
Under the Romans.

Minutius Plancus, Roman governor of Gallia Comata, or the Gaul
of Cæsar's conquest, founded, B. C. 43, a city called
Lugdunum, at the confluence of the Rhone and the Saone. A few
years later, under Augustus, it was made the capital of a
province to which it gave its name—Lugdunensis—and which
comprised the whole of central Gaul, between the Loire and the
Seine with the Armorican peninsula. In time the name Lugdunum
became softened and shorn to Lyons. "Lyons, which stood on the
west side of the Rhone, not so near the confluence of the
Sâone as now, appears to have been settled by fugitive Romans
driven out of Vienne by another party. It grew with as
marvelous a rapidity as some of our western cities, for in
fifteen years it swelled from a simple colony into a
metropolis of considerable splendor. … Lugdun appears to
have been a Keltic designation, and, as the 'g' in that speech
took the sound of 'y' and 'd' was silent, we can easily see
how the name became Lyon."

_P. Godwin,
History of France: Ancient Gaul,
book 2, chapter 5, with foot-note._

"Not having originated out of a Celtic canton, and hence
always with a territory of narrow limits, but from the outset
composed of Italians and in possession of the full Roman
franchise, it [Lyons] stood forth unique in its kind among the
communities of the three Gauls—as respects its legal
relations, in some measure resembling Washington in the North
American federation. … Only the governor of the middle or
Lugudunensian province had his seat there; but when emperors
or princes stayed in Gaul they as a rule resided in Lyons.
Lyons was, alongside of Carthage, the only city of the Latin
half of the empire which obtained a standing garrison, after
the model of that of the capital. The only mint for imperial
money which we can point to with certainty, for the earlier
period of the empire, is that of Lyons. Here was the
headquarters of the transit-dues which embraced all Gaul; and
to this as a centre the Gallic network of roads converged. …
Thus Lugudunum rapidly rose into prosperity. … In the later
period of the empire, no doubt, it fell behind Treves."

_T. Mommsen,
History of Rome,
book 8, chapter 3._

LYONS: A. D. 500.
Under the Burgundians.

See BURGUNDIANS: A. D. 500.

LYONS: 10th Century.
In the kingdom of Aries.

See BURGUNDY: A. D. 843—933.

LYONS: 12th Century.
The Poor Men of Lyons."

See WALDENSES.

LYONS: A. D. 1685-1698.
Loss in the silk weaving industry by the Huguenot exodus.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1681-1698.

LYONS: A. D. 1793-1794.
Revolt against the Revolutionary government at Paris.
Siege and capture and fearful vengeance by the Terrorists.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JUNE), (JULY-DECEMBER);
and 1793—1794 (OCTOBER-APRIL).

LYONS: A. D. 1795.
Reaction against the Reign of Terror.
The White Terror.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1794-1795 (JULY-APRIL).

----------LYONS: End----------

LYONS, Battle of (A. D. 197).

See ROME: A. D. 192-284.

LYSIMACHUS, and the wars of the Diadochi.

See MACEDONIA: B. C. 323-316, to 297-280.

LYTTON, Lord, The Indian administration of.

See INDIA: A. D. 1876, 1877;
and AFGHANISTAN: A. D. 1869-1881.

MAARMORS.

See MORMAERS.

MACÆ, The.

See LIBYANS.

McALLISTER, Fort, The storming of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (NOVEMBER-DECEMBER: GEORGIA).

MACALO, Battle of (1427).

See ITALY: A. D. 1412-1447.

MACBETH, King of Scotland: A. D. 1039-1054.

MACCABEES, The.

See JEWS: B. C. 166-40.

MACCIOWICE, Battle of (1794).

See POLAND: A. D. 1793-1796.

McCLELLAN, General George B.
Campaign in West Virginia.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1861 (JUNE-JULY: WEST VIRGINIA).

McCLELLAN, General George B:
Appointment to chief command.
Organization of the Army of the Potomac.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1861 (JULY-NOVEMBER).

{2057}

McCLELLAN, General George B:
Protracted inaction through the winter of 1861-62.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1861-1862 (DECEMBER-MARCH: VIRGINIA).

McCLELLAN, General George B:
Peninsular campaign.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (MARCH-MAY: VIRGINIA),
(JULY-AUGUST: VIRGINIA).

McCLELLAN, General George B:
During General Pope's campaign.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (JULY-AUGUST: VIRGINIA),
to (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER, VIRGINIA).

McCLELLAN, General George B:
Antietam Campaign, and removal from command.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (SEPTEMBER: MARYLAND);
and (OCTOBER-DECEMBER: VIRGINIA).

McCLELLAN, General George B:
Defeat in Presidential election.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (MAY-NOVEMBER).

MACDONALD, Marshal.
Campaigns of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1798-1799 (AUGUST-APRIL),
1799 (APRIL-SEPTEMBER);
GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JULY-SEPTEMBER);
1813 (APRIL-MAY), (AUGUST), (OCTOBER),
(OCTOBER-DECEMBER);
and RUSSIA: A. D. 1812 (JUNE-SEPTEMBER).

MACDONOUGH, Commodore Thomas,
and his victory on Lake Champlain.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1814 (SEPTEMBER).

McDOWELL, Battle at.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862. (MAY-JUNE: VIRGINIA).

MACE, as a symbol of authority, The.

"The club or mace, formed originally of hard wood, and the
latter, subsequently either wholly or in part of metal, would
naturally be adopted as one of the earliest weapons of
primitive man, but it soon came to be regarded as a symbol of
authority. … In the Middle Ages the mace was a common weapon
with ecclesiastics, who, in consequence of their tenures,
frequently took the field, but were, by a canon of the Church,
forbidden to wield the sword. It strikes me as not improbable
that in this custom we have the origin of the use of the mace
as a symbol of authority by our cathedral and other ancient
religious bodies. … In all probability its use by lay
corporations may be traced to the corps of sergeants-at-mace,
instituted as a body-guard both by Philip Augustus of France
and our own Richard I., whilst with the Crusaders in
Palestine. We learn that when the former monarch was in the
Holy Land he found it necessary to secure his person from the
emissaries of a sheik, called 'the Old Man of the Mountain,'
who bound themselves to assassinate whomsoever he assigned.
'When the king,' says an ancient chronicler, 'heard of this he
began to reflect seriously, and took counsel how he might best
guard his person. He therefore instituted a guard of
serjeants-à-maces who night and day were to be about his
person in order to protect him.' These sergens-à-maces were
'afterwards called sergeants-at-arms, for Jean Bouteiller, …
who lived in the time of Charles VI., that is, at the
conclusion of the fourteenth century tells us, "The sergens
d'armes are the mace-bearers that the king has to perform his
duty, and who carry maces before the king; these are called
sergeants-at-arms, because they are sergeants for the king's
body.'" We learn further that Richard I. of England soon
imitated the conduct of the French king, but he seems to have
given his corps of sergeants-at-arms a more extensive power.
Not only were they to watch round the king's tent in complete
armour, with a mace, a sword, a bow and arrows, but were
occasionally to arrest traitors and other offenders about the
court, for which the mace was deemed a sufficient authority.
… Hence, in all probability, was derived the custom of the
chief magistrate of a municipality, who, as such, is the
representative of the sovereign, being attended by his
mace-bearer, as a symbol of the royal authority thus delegated
to him."

_W. Kelly,
The Great Mace
(Royal Historical Society Transactions, volume 3)._

----------MACEDONIA: Start--------

MACEDONIA AND MACEDONIANS, The.

"The Macedonians of the fourth century B. C. acquired, from
the ability and enterprise of two successive kings, a great
perfection in Greek military organization, without any of the
loftier Hellenic qualities. Their career in Greece is purely
destructive, extinguishing the free movement of the separate
cities, and disarming the citizen-soldier to make room for the
foreign mercenary whose sword was unhallowed by any feelings
of patriotism—yet totally incompetent to substitute any good
system of central or pacific administration. But the
Macedonians of the seventh and sixth centuries B. C. are an
aggregate only of rude inland tribes, subdivided into distinct
petty principalities, and separated from the Greeks by a wider
ethnical difference even than the Epirots; since Herodotus,
who considers the Epirotic Molossians and Thesprotians as
children of Hellen, decidedly thinks the contrary respecting
the Macedonians. In the main, however, they seem at this early
period analogous to the Epirots in character and civilization.
They had some few towns, but they were chiefly village
residents, extremely brave and pugnacious. … The original
seats of the Macedonians were in the regions east of the chain
of Skardus (the northerly continuation of Pindus)—north of
the chain called the Cambunian mountains, which connects
Olympus with Pindus, and which forms the north-western
boundary of Thessaly; but they did not reach so far eastward
as the Thermaic Gulf. … The Macedonian language was
different from Illyrian, from Thracian, and seemingly also
from Pæonian. It was also different from Greek, yet apparently
not more widely distinct than that of the Epirots; so that the
acquisition of Greek was comparatively easy to the chiefs and
people. … The large and comparatively productive region
covered by the various sections of Macedonians, helps to
explain that increase of ascendency which they successively
acquired over all their neighbours. It was not however until a
late period that they became united under one government. At
first, each section—how many we do not know—had its own
prince or chief. The Elymiots, or inhabitants of Elymeia, the
southernmost portion of Macedonia, were thus originally
distinct and independent; also the Orestæ, in mountain-seats
somewhat north-west of the Elymiots. … The section of the
Macedonian name who afterwards swallowed up all the rest and
became known as 'The Macedonians' had their original centre at
Ægæ or Edessa—the lofty, commanding and picturesque site of
the modern Vodhena."

_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapter 25 (volume 3)._

MACEDONIA: B. C. 508.
Subjection to Persia.

See PERSIA: B. C. 521-493.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 383-379.
Overthrow of the Olynthian Confederacy by Sparta.

See GREECE: B. C. 383-379.

{2058}

MACEDONIA: B. C. 359-358.
Accession and first proceedings of King Philip.
His acquisition of Amphipolis.

See GREECE: B. C. 359-358.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 353-336.
Philip's conquest of Thessaly.
Intervention in the Sacred War.
Victory at Chæronea.
Mastery of Greece.
Preparation to invade Persia.
Assassination.

See GREECE: B. C. 357-336.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 351-348.
War with the Olynthian Confederacy.
Destruction of Olynthus.

See GREECE: B. C. 351-348.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 340.
Philip's unsuccessful siege of Byzantium.

See GREECE: B. C. 340.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 336-335.
Alexander's campaigns at the north.
Revolt and destruction of Thebes.

See GREECE: B. C. 336-335.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 334-330.
Invasion and conquest of the Persian empire
by Alexander the Great.

Philip of Macedonia fell under the hand of an assassin in the
midst of his preparations (B. C. 336) for the invasion of the
Persian Empire. He was succeeded by his son, Alexander, who
applied himself first, with significant energy, to the
chastisement of the troublesome barbarians on his northern
frontier, and to the crushing of revolt in Greece (see GREECE:
B. C. 336-335). He had not yet been a year on the throne
"when he stood forth a greater and more powerful sovereign than
his father, with his empire united in the bonds of fear and
admiration, and ready to carry out the long premeditated
attack of the Greeks on the dominion of the Great king. … He
had indeed a splendid army of all branches, heavy infantry,
light infantry, slingers and archers, artillery such as the
ancients could produce without gunpowder, and cavalry, both
Thessalian and Macedonian, fit for both skirmishing and the
shock of battle. If its numbers were not above 40,000, this
moderate force was surely as much as any commander could
handle in a rapid campaign with long marches through a hostile
country. … After a Homeric landing on the coast near Ilium,
and sacrifices to the Ilian goddess at her ancient shrine,
with feasts and games, the king started East to meet the
Persian satraps, who had collected their cavalry and Greek
mercenary infantry on the plain of Zeleia, behind the river
Granicus (B. C. 334). Here he fought his first great battle,
and showed the nature of his tactics. He used his heavy
infantry, divided into two columns or phalanxes as his left
wing, flanked by Thessalian cavalry, to threaten the right of
the enemy, and keep him engaged while he delivered his main
attack. Developing this movement by a rapid advance in
echelonned squadrons thrown forward to the right, threatening
to outflank the enemy, he induced them to spread their forces
towards their left wing, and so weaken their left centre. No
sooner had he succeeded in this than he threw his heavy
cavalry on this weak point, and after a very severe struggle
in crossing the river, and climbing its rugged banks, he
completely broke the enemy's line. … He did not strike
straight into Asia, for this would have left it possible for
Mentor and Memnon, the able Rhodians who commanded on the
coast for Darius, either to have raised all Asia Minor against
him, or to have transferred the war back to Macedon. … So
then he seized Sardis, the key of all the highroads eastwards;
he laid siege to Halicarnassus, which made a very long and
stubborn resistance, and did not advance till he had his rear
safe from attack. Even with all these precautions, the Persian
fleet, under Memnon, was producing serious difficulties, and
had not that able general died at the critical moment (B. C.
333), the Spartan revolt, which was put down the following
year in Greece, would have assumed serious proportions.
Alexander now saw that he could press on, and strike at the
headquarters of the enemies' power—Phœnicia and the Great
king himself. He crossed the difficult range of the Taurus,
the southern bulwark of the Persian Empire, and occupied
Cilicia. Even the sea was supposed to have retreated to allow
his army to pass along a narrow strand under precipitous
cliffs. The Great king was awaiting him with a vast
army—grossly exaggerated, moreover, in our Greek accounts—in
the plain of Syria, near Damascus. Foolish advisers persuaded
him, owing to some delay in Alexander's advance, to leave his
favourable position, where the advantage of his hosts of
cavalry was clear. He therefore actually crossed Alexander,
who had passed on the sea side of Mount Amanus, southward, and
occupied Issus on his rear. The Macedonian army was thus cut
off from home, and a victory necessary to its very existence.
The great battle of Issus was fought on such narrow ground,
between the sea and the mountains, that neither side had room
for outflanking its opponent, except by occupying the high
ground on the inland side of the plain (B. C. 333). This was
done by the Persians, and the banks of a little river (the
Pinarus) crossing their front were fortified as at the
Granicus. Alexander was obliged to advance with a large
reserve to protect his right flank. As usual he attacked with
his right centre, and as soon as he had shaken the troops
opposed to him, wheeled to the left, and made straight for the
king himself, who occupied the centre in his chariot. Had
Darius withstood him bravely and for some time, the defeat of
the Macedonians' left wing would probably have been complete,
for the Persian cavalry on the coast, attacking the
Thessalians on Alexander's left wing, were decidedly superior,
and the Greek infantry was at this time a match for the
phalanx. But the flight of Darius, and the panic which ensued
about him, left Alexander leisure to turn to the assistance of
his hard-pressed left wing, and recover the victory. … The
greatness of this victory completely paralyzed all the revolt
prepared in his rear by the Persian fleet. Alexander was now
strong enough to go on without any base of operation, and he
boldly (in the manifesto he addressed to Darius after the
battle) proclaimed himself King of' Persia by right of
conquest, who would brook no equal. Nevertheless, he delayed
many months (which the siege of Tyre [see TYRE: B. C. 332]
cost him, B. C. 332), and then, passing through Jerusalem, and
showing consideration for the Jews, he again paused at the
siege of Gaza [see GAZA: B. C. 332], merely, we may suppose,
to prove that he was invincible, and to settle once for all
the question of the world's mastery. He delayed again for a
short while in Egypt [see EGYPT: B. C. 332], when he regulated
the country as a province under his sway, with kindness
towards the inhabitants, and respect for their religion, and
founded Alexandria; nay, he even here made his first essay in
claiming divinity; and then, at last, set out to conquer the
Eastern provinces of Darius' empire.
{2059}
The great decisive battle in the plains of Mesopotamia (B. C.
331)—it is called either Arbela or Gaugamela—was spoken of
as a trial of strength, and the enormous number of the Persian
cavalry, acting on open ground, gave timid people room to
fear; but Alexander had long since found out, what the British
have found in their many Eastern wars, that even a valiant
cavalry is helpless, if undisciplined, against an army of
regulars under a competent commander. … The Macedonian had
again, however, failed to capture his opponent, for which he
blamed Parmenio. … So then, though the issue of the war was
not doubtful, there was still a real and legitimate rival to
the throne, commanding the sympathies of most of his subjects.
For the present, however, Alexander turned his attention to
occupying the great capitals of the Persian empire—capitals
of older kingdoms, embodied in the empire. … These great
cities, Babylon in Mesopotamia, Susa (Shushan) in Elam,
Persepolis in Persia proper, and Ecbatana in Media, were all
full of ancient wealth and splendour, adorned with great
palaces, and famed for monstrous treasures. The actual amount
of gold and silver seized in these hoards (not less than
£30,000,000 of English money, and perhaps a great deal more)
had a far larger effect on the world than the discovery of
gold and silver mines in recent times. Every adventurer in the
army became suddenly rich; all the means and materials for
luxury which the long civilization of the East had discovered
and employed, were suddenly thrown into the hands of
comparatively rude and even barbarous soldiers. It was a prey
such as the Spaniards found in Mexico and Peru, but had a far
stronger civilization, which must react upon the conquerors.
And already Alexander showed clear signs that he regarded
himself as no mere Macedonian or Greek king, but as the
Emperor of the East, and successor in every sense of the
unfortunate Darius. He made superhuman efforts to overtake
Darius in his retreat from Ecbatana through the Parthian
passes to the northern provinces—Balkh and Samarcand. The
narrative of this famous pursuit is as wonderful as anything
in Alexander's campaign. He only reached the fleeing Persian
as he was dying of the wounds dealt him by the traitor Bessus,
his satrap in Bactria, who had aspired to the crown (B. C.
330). Alexander signally executed the regicide, and himself
married the daughter of Darius—who had no son—thus
assuming, as far as possible, the character of Darius'
legitimate successor."

_J. P. Mahaffy,
The Story of Alexander's Empire,
chapters 2-3._

ALSO IN:
_C. Thirlwall,
History of Greece,
chapters 49-50 (volume 6)._

_E. S. Creasy,
Fifteen Decisive Battles: Arabela._

_T. A. Dodge,
Alexander,
chapters 18-31._

MACEDONIA: B. C. 330-323.
Alexander's conquest of Afghanistan, Bactria and Sogdiana.
His invasion of India.
His death at Babylon.
His character and aims.