Chapter 3: , page 89 (51)

Ethbaal, or Ithobaal, a priest of Astarte, acquired possession
of the throne of Tyre B. C. 917, deposing and putting to death
the legitimate prince, a descendant of Hiram, Solomon’s ally
and friend. The Jezebel of Jewish history, who married Ahab,
king of Israel, was the daughter of this king Ethbaal.
"Ethbaal was succeeded by his son Balezor (885-877 B. C.).
After eight years Balezor left two sons, Mutton and
Sicharbaal, both under age. … Mutton died in the year 853 B.
C. and again left a son nine years old, Pygmalion, and a
daughter, Elissa, a few years older, whom he had married to
his brother Sicharbaal, the priest of the temple of Melkarth.
Mutton had intended that Elissa and Pygmalion should reign
together, and thus the power really passed into the hands of
Sicharbaal, the husband of Elissa. When Pygmalion reached his
sixteenth year the people transferred to him the sovereignty
of Tyre, and he put Sicharbaal, his uncle, to death … (846
B. C.). Elissa [or Dido, as she was also called] fled from
Tyre before her brother, as we are told, with others who would
not submit to the tyranny of Pygmalion. The exiles … are
said … to have landed on the coast of Africa, in the
neighbourhood of Ityke, the old colony of the Phenicians, and
there to have bought as much land of the Libyans as could be
covered by the skin of an ox. By dividing this into very thin
strips they obtained a piece of land sufficient to enable them
to build a fortress. This new dwelling-place, or the city
which grew up round this fortress, the wanderers called, in
reference to their old home, Karthada (Karta hadasha), i. e.,
'the new city,' the Karchedon of the Greeks, the Carthage of
the Romans. The legend of the purchase of the soil may have
arisen from the fact that the settlers for a long time paid
tribute to the ancient population, the Maxyans, for their
soil."

_M. Duncker,
History of Antiquity,
book 3, chapter 11._

CARTHAGE:
Divisions, Size and Population.

"The city proper, at the time at which it is best known to us,
the period of the Punic wars, consisted of the Byrsa or
Citadel quarter, a Greek word corrupted from the Canaanitish
Bozra, or Bostra, that is, a fort, and of the Cothon or
harbour quarter, so important in the history of the final
siege. To the north and west of these, and occupying all the
vast space between them and the isthmus behind, were the
Megara (Hebrew, Magurim), that is, the suburbs and gardens of
Carthage, which, with the city proper, covered an area of 23
miles in circumference. Its population must have been fully
proportioned to its size. Just before the third Punic war,
when its strength had been drained … it contained 700,000
inhabitants."

_R. B. Smith,
Carthage and the Carthaginians,
chapter 1._

ALSO IN:
_E. A. Freeman,
Carthage
(Hist. Essays, 4th series)._

{393}

CARTHAGE:
The Dominion of.

"All our positive information, scanty as it is, about Carthage
and her institutions, relates to the fourth, third, or second
centuries B. C.; yet it may be held to justify presumptive
conclusions as to the fifth century B. C., especially in
reference to the general system pursued. The maximum of her
power was attained before her first war with Rome, which began
in 264 B. C.; the first and second Punic wars both of them
greatly reduced her strength and dominion. Yet in spite of
such reduction we learn that about 150 B. C. shortly before
the third Punic war, which ended in the capture and
depopulation of the city, not less than 700,000 souls were
computed in it, as occupants of a fortified circumference of
above twenty miles, covering a peninsula with its isthmus.
Upon this isthmus its citadel Byrsa was situated, surrounded
by a triple wall of its own, and crowned at its summit by a
magnificent temple of Æsculapius. The numerous population is
the more remarkable, since Utica (a considerable city,
colonized from Phœnicia more anciently than even Carthage
itself, and always independent of the Carthaginians, though in
the condition of an inferior and discontented ally) was within
the distance of seven miles from Carthage on the one side, and
Tunis seemingly not much further off on the other. Even at
that time, too, the Carthaginians are said to have possessed
300 tributary, cities in Libya. Yet this was but a small
fraction of the prodigious empire which had belonged to them
certainly in the fourth century B. C. and in all probability
also between 480-410 B. C. That empire extended eastward as
far as the Altars of the Philæni, near the Great
Syrtis,—westward, all along the coast to the Pillars of
Herakles and the western coast of Morocco. The line of coast
southeast of Carthage, as far as the bay called the Lesser
Syrtis, was proverbial (under the name of Byzacium and the
Emporia) for its fertility. Along this extensive line were
distributed indigenous Libyan tribes, living by agriculture;
and a mixed population called Liby-Phœnician. … Of the
Liby-Phœnician towns the number is not known to us, but it
must have been prodigiously great. … A few of the towns
along the coast,—Hippo, Utica, Adrumetum, Thapsus. Leptis,
&c.—were colonies from Tyre, like Carthage itself. … Yet
the Carthaginians contrived in time to render every town
tributary, with the exception of Utica. … At one time,
immediately after the first Punic war, they took from the
rural cultivators as much as one-half of their produce, and
doubled at one stroke the tribute levied upon the towns. …
The native Carthaginians, though encouraged by honorary marks
to undertake … military service were generally averse to it,
and sparingly employed. … A chosen division of 2,500
citizens, men of wealth and family, formed what was called the
Sacred Band of Carthage distinguished for their bravery in the
field as well as for the splendour of their arms, and the gold
and silver plate which formed part of their baggage. We shall
find these citizen troops occasionally employed on service in
Sicily: but most part of the Carthaginian army consists of
Gauls, Iberians, Libyans, &c., a mingled host got together for
the occasion, discordant in language as well as in customs."

_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapter 81._

CARTHAGE: B. C. 480.
Invasion of Sicily.
Great defeat at Himera.

See SICILY: B. C. 480.

CARTHAGE: B. C. 409-405.
Invasions of Sicily.
Destruction of Selinus, Himera and Agrigentum.

See Sicily: B. C. 409-405.

CARTHAGE: B. C. 396.
Siege of Syracuse.

See SYRACUSE: B. C. 397-396.

CARTHAGE: B. C. 383.
War with Syracuse.

See SICILY: B. C. 383.

CARTHAGE: B. C. 310-306.
Invasion by Agathokles.

See SYRACUSE: B. C. 317-289.

CARTHAGE: B. C. 264-241.
The first war with Rome.
Expulsion from Sicily.
Loss of maritime supremacy.

See PUNIC WAR, THE FIRST.

CARTHAGE: B. C. 241-238.
Revolt of the mercenaries.

At the close of the First Punic War, the veteran army of
mercenaries with which Hamilcar Barca had maintained himself
so long in Sicily—a motley gathering of Greeks, Ligurians,
Gauls, Iberians, Libyans and others—was sent over to Carthage
for the long arrears of pay due them and for their discharge.
The party in power in Carthage, being both incapable and mean,
and being also embarrassed by an empty treasury, exasperated
this dangerous body of men by delays and by attempts at
bargaining with them for a reduction of their claims, until a
general mutiny was provoked. The mercenaries, 20,000 strong,
with Spendius, a runaway Campanian slave, Matho, an African,
and Autaritus, a Gaul, for their leaders, marched from the
town of Sicca, where they were quartered, and camped near
Tunis, threatening Carthage. The government became
panic-stricken and took no measures which did not embolden the
mutineers and increase their demands. All the oppressed
African peoples in the Carthaginian domain rose to join the
revolt, and poured into the hands of the mercenaries the
tribute money which Carthage would have wrung from them. The
latter was soon brought to a state of sore distress, without
an army, without ships, and with its supplies of food mostly
cut off. The neighboring cities of Utica and Hippo Zarytus
were besieged. At length the Carthaginian government,
controlled by a party hostile to Hamilcar, was obliged to call
him to the command, but associated with him Hanno, his
bitterest personal enemy and the most incompetent leader of
the ruling faction. Hamilcar succeeded, after a desperate and
long struggle, in destroying the mutineers to almost the last
man, and in saving Carthage. But the war, which lasted more
than three years (B. C. 241-238), was merciless and horrible
beyond description. It was known to the ancients as the
"Truceless War" and the "Inexpiable War." The scenes and
circumstances of it have been extraordinarily pictured in
Flaubert's "Salammbo," which is one of the most revolting but
most powerful of historical romances.

_R. B. Smith,
Carthage and the Carthaginians,
chapter 8._

ALSO IN:
_W. Ihne,
History of Rome,
book 4, chapter 4._

CARTHAGE: B. C. 237-202.
Hamilcar in Spain.
The second war with Rome.
Hannibal in Italy and Sicily.
Scipio in Africa.
The great defeat at Zama.
Loss of naval dominion and of Spain.

See PUNIC WAR, THE SECOND.

{394}

CARTHAGE: B. C. 146.
Destruction by Scipio.

Carthage existed by Roman sufferance for fifty years after the
ending of the Second Punic War, and even recovered some
considerable prosperity in trade, though Rome took care that
her chances for recovery should be slight. When Hannibal gave
signs of being able to reform the government of the city and
to distinguish himself in statesmanship as he had immortalized
himself in war, Rome demanded him, and he escaped her chains
only by flight. When, even without Hannibal, Carthage slowly
repaired the broken fortunes of her merchants, there was an
enemy at her door always ready, at the bidding of Rome, to
plunder them afresh. This was Massinissa, the Numidian prince,
client and obedient servant of the Roman state. Again and
again the helpless Carthaginians appealed to Rome to protect
them from his depredations, and finally they ventured to
attempt the protection of themselves. Then the patient perfidy
of Roman statecraft grasped its reward. It had waited many
years for the provocations of Massinissa to work their effect;
the maddened Carthaginians had broken, at last, the hard
letter of the treaty of 201 by assailing the friend and ally
of Rome. The pretext sufficed for a new declaration of war,
with the fixed purpose of pressing it to the last extreme. Old
Cato, who had been crying in the ears of the Senate, "Carthago
delenda est," should have his wish. The doomed Carthaginians
were kept in ignorance of the fate decreed, until they had
been foully tricked into the surrender of their arms and the
whole armament of their city. But when they knew the dreadful
truth, they threw off all cowardice and rose to such a majesty
of spirit as had never been exhibited in their history before.
Without weapons, or engines or ships, until they made them
anew, they shut their gates and kept the Roman armies out for
more than two years. It was another Scipio, adopted grandson
and namesake of the conqueror of Hannibal, who finally entered
Carthage (B. C. 146), fought his way to its citadel, street by
street, and, against his own wish, by command of the
implacable senate at Rome, levelled its last building to the
earth, after sending the inhabitants who survived to be sold
as slaves.

_R. B. Smith,
Carthage and the Carthaginians,
chapter 20._

ALSO IN:
_H. G. Liddell,
History of Rome,
chapter 46._

CARTHAGE: B. C. 44.
Restoration by Cæsar.

"A settlement named Junonia, had been made at Carthage by C.
Gracchus [which furnished his enemies one of their weapons
against him, because, they said, he had drawn on himself the
curse of Scipio] and it appears that the city of Gracchus
still existed. Cæsar restored the old name, and, as Strabo
says, rebuilt the place: many Romans who preferred Carthage to
Rome were sent there, and some soldiers; and it is now, adds
Strabo [reign of Augustus] more populous than any town in
Libya."

_G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 5, chapter 32._

CARTHAGE: 2d-4th Centuries.
The Christian Church.

See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 100-312.

CARTHAGE: A. D. 439.
Taken by the Vandals.

Carthage was surprised and captured by the Vandals on the 9th
of Oct., A. D. 439,—nine years after the conquest and
destruction of the African provinces by Genseric began;—585
years after the ancient Carthage was destroyed by Scipio. "A
new city had risen from its ruins, with the title of a colony;
and though Carthage might yield to the royal prerogatives of
Constantinople, and perhaps to the trade of Alexandria or the
splendour of Antioch, she still maintained the second rank in
the West—as the Rome (if we may use the style of
contemporaries) of the African world. … The buildings of
Carthage were uniform and magnificent. A shady grove was
planted in the midst of the capital; the new port, a secure
and capacious harbour, was subservient to the commercial
industry of citizens and strangers; and the splendid games of
the circus and theatre were exhibited almost in the presence
of the barbarians. The reputation of the Carthaginians was not
equal to that of their country, and the reproach of Punic
faith still adhered to their subtle and faithless character.
The habits of trade and the abuse of luxury had corrupted
their manners. … The King of the Vandals severely reformed
the vices of a voluptuous people. … The lands of the
proconsular province, which formed the immediate district of
Carthage, were accurately measured and divided among the
barbarians."

_E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 33.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

See, also, VANDALS: A. D. 429-439.

CARTHAGE: A. D. 533.
Taken by Belisarius.

See VANDALS. A. D. 533-534.

CARTHAGE: A. D. 534-558.

The Province of Africa after Justinian's conquest. "Successive
inroads [of the Moorish tribes] had reduced the province of
Africa to one-third of the measure of Italy; yet the Roman
emperors continued to reign above a century over Carthage and
the fruitful coast of the Mediterranean. But the victories and
the losses of Justinian were alike pernicious to mankind; and
such was the desolation of Africa that a stranger might wander
whole days without meeting the face either of a friend or an
enemy. The nation of the Vandals had disappeared. … Their
numbers were infinitely surpassed by the number of the Moorish
families extirpated in a relentless war; and the same
destruction was retaliated on the Romans and their allies, who
perished by the climate, their mutual quarrels, and the rage
of the barbarians. When Procopius first landed [with
Belisarius, A. D. 533] he admired the populousness of the
cities and country, strenuously exercised in the labours of
commerce and agriculture. In less than twenty years that busy
scene was converted into a silent solitude; the wealthy
citizens escaped to Sicily and Constantinople; and the secret
historian has confidently affirmed that five millions of
Africans were consumed by the wars and government of the
Emperor Justinian."

_E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 43.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

{395}

CARTHAGE: A. D. 698.
Destruction by the Arabs.

"In the 77th year of the Hegira [A. D. 698] … Abd'almalec
[the Caliph] sent Hossan Ibn Anno'man, at the head of 40,000
choice troops, to carry out the scheme of African conquest
[which had languished for some years, during the civil wars
among the Moslems]. That general pressed forward at once with
his troops against the city of Carthage, which, though
declined from its ancient might and glory, was still an
important seaport, fortified with lofty walls, haughty towers
and powerful bulwarks, and had a numerous garrison of Greeks
and other Christians. Hossan proceeded according to the old
Arab mode; beleaguering and reducing it by a long siege; he
then assailed it by storm, scaled its lofty walls with
ladders, and made himself master of the place. Many of the
inhabitants fell by the edge of the sword; many escaped by sea
to Sicily and Spain. The walls were then demolished; the city
was given up to be plundered by the soldiery, the meanest of
whom was enriched by booty. … The triumph of the Moslem host
was suddenly interrupted. While they were revelling in the
ravaged palaces of Carthage, a fleet appeared before the port;
snapped the strong chain which guarded the entrance, and
sailed into the harbor. It was a combined force of ships and
troops from Constantinople and Sicily; reinforced by Goths
from Spain; all under the command of the prefect John, a
patrician general of great valor and experience. Hossan felt
himself unable to cope with such a force; he withdrew, however
in good order, and conducted his troops laden with spoils to
Tripoli and Caerwan, and, having strongly posted them, he
awaited reinforcements from the Caliph. These arrived in
course of time by sea and land. Hossan again took the field;
encountered the prefect John, not far from Utica, defeated him
in a pitched battle and drove him to embark the wrecks of his
army and make all sail for Constantinople. Carthage was again
assailed by the victors, and now its desolation was complete,
for the vengeance of the Moslems gave that majestic city to
the flames. A heap of ruins and the remains of a noble
aqueduct are all the relics of a metropolis that once
valiantly contended for dominion with Rome."

_W. Irving,
Mahomet and his Successors,
volume 2, chapter 54._

ALSO IN:
_N. Davis,
Carthage and Her Remains._

See, also, MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 647-709.

----------CARTHAGE: End----------

CARTHAGE, Missouri, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1861 (JULY-SEPTEMBER: MISSOURI).

CARTHAGENA (NEW CARTHAGE).
The founding of the city.

Hasdrubal, son-in-law and successor of Hamilcar Barca in Spain,
founded New Carthage—modern Carthagena—some time between 229
and 221 B. C. to be the capital of the Carthaginian dominion
in the Spanish peninsula.

_R. B. Smith,
Carthage and the Carthaginians,
chapter 9._

Capture by Scipio.

See PUNIC WAR. THE SECOND.

Settlement of the Alans in.

See SPAIN: A. D. 409-414.

----------CARTHAGENA: End----------

CARTHAGENA (South America): A. D. 1697.
Taken and sacked by the French.

One of the last enterprises of the French in the war which was
closed by the Peace of Ryswick—undertaken, in fact, while the
negotiations at Ryswick were in progress—was the storming and
sacking of Carthagena by a privateer squadron, from Brest,
commanded by rear-admiral Pointis, April, 1697. "The
inhabitants were allowed to carry away their effects; but all
the gold, silver, and precious stones were the prey of the
conqueror. Pointis … reentered Brest safe and sound,
bringing back to his ship-owners more than ten millions. The
officers of the squadron and the privateers had well provided
for themselves besides, and the Spaniards had probably lost
more than twenty millions."

_H. Martin,
History of France: Age of Louis XIV.
(translated by M. L. Booth),
volume 2, chapter 2._

CARTHAGENA: A. D. 1741.
Attack and repulse of the English.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1739-1741.

CARTHAGENA A. D. 1815.
Siege and capture by the Spaniards.

See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1810-1819.

----------CARTHAGENA (South America): End----------

CARTHUSIAN ORDER.
La Grande Chartreuse.

"St. Bruno, once a canon of St. Cunibert's, at Cologne, and
afterward chancellor of the metropolitan church of Rheims,
followed by six companions, founded a monastery near Grenoble,
amid the bleak and rugged mountains of the desert of Chartreuse
(A. D. 1084). The rule given by St. Bruno to his disciples was
founded upon that of St. Benedict, but with such modifications as
almost to make of it a new and particular one. The Carthusians
were very nearly akin to the monks of Vallis-Umbrosa and
Camaldoli; they led the same kind of life—the eremitical
joined to the cenobitic. Each religious had his own cell,
where he spent the week in solitude, and met the community
only on Sunday. … Never, perhaps, had the monastic life
surrounded itself with such rigors and holy austerities. …
The religious were bound to a life-long silence, having
renounced the world to hold converse with Heaven alone. Like
the solitaries of Thebais they never eat meat, and their
dress, as an additional penance, consisted only of a
sack-cloth garment. Manual labors, broken only by the exercise
of common prayer; a board on the bare earth for a couch; a
narrow cell, where the religious twice a day receives his
slight allowance of boiled herbs;—such is the life of pious
austerities of which the world knows not the heavenly
sweetness. For 800 years has this order continued to edify and
to serve the Church by the practice of the most sublime
virtue; and its very rigor seems to hold out a mysterious
attraction to pious souls. A congregation of women has
embraced the primitive rule."

_J. E. Darras,
History of the Catholic Church,
volume 3, chapter 4, par. 26,
and chapter 10, par. 11._

From the account of a visit to the Grande Chartreuse, the
parent monastery, near Grenoble, made in 1667, by Dom Claude
Lancelot, of Port Royal, the following is taken: "All I had
heard of this astonishing seclusion falls infinitely short of
the reality. No adequate description can be given of the awful
magnificence of this dreary solitude. … The desert of the
Chartreuse is wholly inaccessible but by one exceedingly
narrow defile. This pass, which is only a few feet wide, is
indeed truly tremendous. It winds between stupendous granite
rocks, which overhang above. … The monastery itself is as
striking as the approach. … On the west … there is a
little space which … is occupied by a dark grove of pine
trees; on every other side the rocks, which are as steep as so
many walls, are not more than ten yards from the convent. By
this means a dim and gloomy twilight perpetually reigns
within."

_M. A. Schimmelpenninck,
A tour to Alet and La Grande Chartreuse,
volume 1, pages 6-13._

CARTIER, Jacques,
Exploration of the St. Lawrence by.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1534-1535, and 1541-1603.

{396}

CARTOUCHE.

"It is impossible to travel in Upper Egypt without knowing
what is meant by a cartouche. A cartouche is that elongated
oval terminated by a straight line which is to be seen on
every wall of the Egyptian temples, and of which other
monuments also afford us numerous examples. The cartouche
always contains the name of a king or of a queen, or in
some cases the names of royal princesses. To designate a king
there are most frequently two cartouches side by side. The
first is called the prænomen, the second the nomen."

_A. Mariette,
Monuments of Upper Egypt,
page 43._

CARTWRIGHT'S POWER LOOM, The invention of.

See COTTON MANUFACTURE.

CARUCATE.

See HIDE OF LAND.

CARUS, Roman Emperor, A. D. 282-283.

CASA MATA, Battle of.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1847 (MARCH-SEPTEMBER).

CASALE: A. D. 1628-1631.
Siege by the Imperialists.
Final acquisition by France.

See ITALY: A. D. 1627-1631.

CASALE: A. D. 1640.
Unsuccessful siege by the Spaniards.

See ITALY: A. D. 1635-1659.

CASALE: A. D. 1697.
Ceded to the Duke of Savoy.

See SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1580-1713.

----------CASALE: End----------

CASALSECCO, Battle of (1427).

See ITALY: A. D. 1412-1447.

CASAS, Bartolomé de las,
The humane labors of.

See SLAVERY: MODERN—OF THE INDIANS.

CASDIM.

See BABYLONIA, PRIMITIVE.

CASENA, Massacre at.

See ITALY: A. D. 1343-1393.

CASHEL, Psalter of.

See TARA, THE HILL AND THE FEIS OF.

CASHEL, Synod of.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1169-1175.

CASHMERE: A. D. 1819-1820.
Conquest by Runjet Singh.

See SIKHS.

CASHMERE: A. D. 1846.
Taken from the Sikhs by the English and given as a kingdom to
Gholab Singh.

See INDIA: A. D. 1845-1849.

----------CASHMERE: End----------

CASIMIR I., King of Poland, A. D. 1037-1058. Casimir II., Duke of Poland, A. D. 1177-1194. Casimir III. (called The Great), King of Poland, A. D. 1333-1370. Casimir IV., King of Poland, A. D. 1445-1492. Casimir, John, King of Poland, A. D. 1648-1668.

CASKET GIRLS, The.

See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1728.

CASKET LETTERS, The.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1561-1568.

CASPIAN GATES (PYLÆ CASPIÆ).

An important pass in the Elburz Mountains, so called by the
Greeks. It is identified with the pass known to the modern
Persians as the Girduni Sunlurmh, some fifty miles or more
eastward, or northeastward, from Teheran. "Through this pass
alone can armies proceed from Armenia, Media, or Persia
eastward, or from Turkestan, Khorasan and Afghanistan into the
more western parts of Asia. The position is therefore one of
primary importance. It was to guard it that Rhages was built
so near to the eastern end of its territory."

_G. Rawlinson,
Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy,
chapter 4._

ALSO IN:
_G. Rawlinson,
Five Great Monarchies: Media,
chapter 1._

CASSANDER, and the wars of the Diadochi.

See MACEDONIA: B. C. 323-316 to 297-280;
also Greece: B. C. 321-312.

CASSANO, Battles of (1705 and 1799).

See ITALY: A. D. 1701-1713,
and France: A. D. 1799 (APRIL-SEPTEMBER).

CASSEL: A. D. 1383.
Burned by the French.

See FLANDERS: A. D. 1383.

CASSEL, Battles of (1328 and 1677).

See FLANDERS: A. D. 1328,
and NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1674-1678.

CASSIAN ROAD.

One of the great Roman roads of antiquity, which ran from
Rome, by way of Sutrium and Clusium to Arretium and Florentia.

_T. Mommsen,
History of Rome,
book 4, chapter 11._

CASSII, The.

A tribe of ancient Britons whose territory was near the Thames.

See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.

CASSITERIDES, The.

The "tin islands," from which the Phœnicians and Carthaginians
obtained their supply of tin. Some archæologists identify them
with the British islands, some with the Scilly islands, and
some with the islands in Vigo Bay, on the coast of Spain.

_Charles Elton,
Origins of English History._

ALSO IN:
_J. Rhys,
Celtic Britain._

CASSOPIANS.

See EPIRUS.

CASTALIAN SPRING.

A spring which issued from between two peaks or cliffs of
Mount Parnassus and flowed downward in a cool stream past the
temple of Apollo at Delphi.

CASTE SYSTEM OF INDIA, The.

"The caste system of India is not based upon an exclusive
descent as involving a difference of rank and culture, but
upon an exclusive descent as involving purity of blood. In the
old materialistic religion which prevailed so largely in the
ancient world, and was closely associated with sexual ideas,
the maintenance of purity of blood was regarded as a sacred
duty. The individual had no existence independent of the
family. Male or female, the individual was but a link in the
life of the family; and any intermixture would be followed by
the separation of the impure branch from the parent stem. In a
word, caste was the religion of the sexes, and as such exists
in India to this day. … The Hindus are divided into an
infinite number of castes, according to their hereditary
trades and professions; but in the present day they are nearly
all comprehended in four great castes, namely, the Brahmans,
or priests; the Kshatriyas, or soldiers; the Vaisyas, or
merchants; and the Sudras, or servile class. The Brahmans are
the mouth of Brahma; the Kshatriyas are his arms; the Vaisyas
are his thighs; and the Sudras are his feet. The three first
castes of priests, soldiers, and merchants, are distinguished
from the fourth caste of Sudras by the thread, or paita, which
is worn depending from the left shoulder and resting on the
right side below the loins. The investiture usually takes
place between the eighth and twelfth year, and is known as the
second birth, and those who are invested are termed the 'twice
born.' It is difficult to say whether the thread indicates a
separation between the conquerors and the conquered; or
whether it originated in a religious investiture from which
the Sudras were excluded."

_J. T. Wheeler,
History of India,
volume 3, pages 114 and 64._

{397}

"Among the delusions about modern India which it seems
impossible to kill, the belief still survives that, although
there have been many changes in the system of caste, it
remains true that the Hindu population is divided into the
four great classes described by Mann: Brahmans, Kshatriyas,
Vaisyas, and Sudras. In India itself this notion is fostered
by the more learned among the Brahmans, who love to make
themselves and others believe in the continuous existence of a
divinely constituted organization. To what extent the
religious and social systems shadowed forth in the ancient
Brahmanical literature had an actual existence it is difficult
to say, but it is certain that little remains of them now. The
Brahmans maintain their exceptional position; but no one can
discern the other great castes which Manu described. Excluding
the Brahmans, caste means for the most part hereditary
occupation, but it also often signifies a common origin of
tribe or race. India, in the words of Sir Henry Maine, is
divided into a vast number of independent, self-acting,
organised social groups—trading, manufacturing, cultivating.
In the enormous majority of instances, caste is only the name
for a number of practices which are followed by each one of a
multitude of groups of men, whether such a group be ancient
and natural or modern and artificial. As a rule, every trade,
every profession, every guild, every tribe, every class, is
also a caste; and the members of a caste not only have their
special objects of worship, selected from the Hindu Pantheon,
or adopted into it, but they exclusively eat together, and
exclusively intermarry.' Mr. Kitts, in his interesting
'Compendium of the Castes and Tribes of India,' compiled from
the Indian Census reports of 1881, enumerates 1929 different
castes. Forty-seven of these have each more than 1,000,000
members; twenty-one have 2,000,000 and upwards. The Brahmans,
Kunbis (agriculturists), and Chumars (workers in leather), are
the only three castes each of which has more than 10,000,000;
nearly 15 per cent. of the inhabitants of India are included
in these three castes. The distinctions and subdivisions of
caste are innumerable, and even the Brahmans, who have this in
common, that they are reverenced by the members of all other
castes, are as much divided among themselves as the rest.
There are nearly 14,000,000 Brahmans; according to Mr.
Sherring, in his work on 'Hindu Tribes and Castes,' there are
more than 1,800 Brahmanical subdivisions; and it constantly
happens that to a Brahman of some particular class or district
the pollution of eating with other Brahmans would be ruinous.
… The Brahmans have become so numerous that only a small
proportion can be employed in sacerdotal functions, and the
charity which it is a duty to bestow upon them could not,
however profuse, be sufficient for their support. They are
found in almost every occupation. They are soldiers,
cultivators, traders, and servants; they were very numerous in
the old Sepoy army, and the name of one of their subdivisions,
'Pande,' became the generic term by which the mutineers of
1857 were commonly known by the English in India. … Mr.
Ibbetson, in his report on the census in the Punjab, shows how
completely it is true that caste is a social and not a
religious institution. Conversion to Mohammedanism, for
instance, does not necessarily affect the caste of the
convert."

_Sir J. Strachey,
India,
lecture 8._

ALSO IN:
_M. Williams,
Religious Thought and Life in India,
chapter 18._

_Sir A. C. Lyall,
Asiatic Studies,
chapter 7._

_Sir H. S. Maine,
Village Communities,
chapter 2._

CASTEL

See MOGONTIACUM.

CASTELAR AND REPUBLICANISM IN SPAIN.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1866-1873, and 1873-1885.

CASTELFIDARDO, Battle of (1860).

See ITALY: A. D. 1859-1861.

CASTELLANO.

See SPANISH COINS.

CASTIGLIONE, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1796 (APRIL-OCTOBER).

CASTILE:
Early inhabitants of.

See CELTIBERIANS.

CASTILE: A. D. 713-1230.
Origin and rise of the kingdom.

See SPAIN: A. D. 713-737, and 1026-1230.

CASTILE: A. D. 1140.
Separation of Portugal as an independent kingdom.

See PORTUGAL: A. D. 1095-1325.

CASTILE: A. D. 1169.
The first Cortes.
The old monarchical constitution.

See CORTES.

CASTILE: A. D. 1212-1238.
Progress of arms.
Permanent union of the crown with that of Leon.
Conquest of Cordova.
Vassalage imposed on Granada and Murcia.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1212-1238.

CASTILE: A. D. 1248-1350.
Reigns of St. Ferdinand, Alfonso the Learned, and their three
successors.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1248-1350.

CASTILE: A. D. 1366-1369.
Pedro the Cruel and the invasion of the English Black Prince.

See SPAIN (CASTILE): A. D. 1366-1369.

CASTILE: A. D. 1368-1476.
Under the house of Trastamare.
Discord and civil war.
The triumph of Queen Isabella and her marriage to
Ferdinand of Aragon.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1368-1479.

CASTILE: A. D. 1515.
Incorporation of Navarre with the kingdom.

See NAVARRE: A. D. 1442-1521.

CASTILE: A. D. 1516.
The crown united with that of Aragon, by Joanna, mother of
Charles V.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1496-1517.

----------CASTILE: End----------

CASTILLA DEL ORO.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1509-1511.

CASTILLON, Battle of (1450).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1431-1453.

CASTLE ST. ANGELO.

The Mausoleum of Hadrian, begun by the emperor Hadrian, A. D.
135, and probably completed by Antoninus Pius, "owes its
preservation entirely to the peculiar fitness of its site and
shape for the purposes of a fortress, which it has served
since the time of Belisarius. … After the burial of Marcus
Aurelius, the tomb was closed until the sack of Rome by Alaric
in 410 A. D., when his barbarian soldiers probably broke it
open in search of treasure, and scattered the ashes of the
Antonines to the winds. From this time, for a hundred years,
the tomb was turned into a fortress, the possession of which
became the object of many struggles in the wars of the Goths
under Vitiges (537 A. D.) and Totilas (killed 552). From the
end of the sixth century, when Gregory the Great saw on its
summit a vision of St. Michael sheathing his sword, in token
that the prayers of the Romans for preservation from the
plague were heard, the Mausoleum of Hadrian was considered as
a consecrated building, under the name of 'S. Angelus inter
Nubes,' 'Usque ad Cœlos,' or 'Inter Cœlos,' until it was
seized in 923 A. D. by Alberic, Count of Tusculum, and the
infamous Marozia, and again became the scene of the fierce
struggles between Popes, Emperors, and reckless adventurers
which marked those miserable times. The last injuries appear
to have been inflicted upon the building in the contest
between the French Pope Clemens VII. and the Italian Pope
Urban VIII. [see PAPACY: A. D. 1377-1417]. The exterior was
then finally dismantled and stripped. Partial additions and
restorations soon began to take place. Boniface IX., in the
beginning of the fifteenth century, erected new battlements
and fortifications on and around the building; and since his
time it has remained in the possession of the Papal
government. The strange medley of Papal reception rooms,
dungeons and military magazines which now encumbers the top,
was chiefly built by Paul III. The corridor connecting it with
the Vatican dates from the time of Alexander Borgia (1494 A.
D.), and the bronze statue of St. Michael on the summit, which
replaced an older marble statue, from the reign of Benedict
XIV."

_R. Burn,
Rome and the Campagna,
chapter 11._

ALSO IN:
_W. W. Story,
Castle St. Angelo._

{398}

CASTLENAUDARI, Battle of (1632).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1630-1632.

CASTLEREAGH, Lord, and the union of Ireland with Great Britain:

See IRELAND: A. D. 1798-1800.

CASTOR WARE.

"Durobrivian or Castor ware, as it is variously called, is the
production of the extensive Romano-British potteries on the
River Nen in Northamptonshire and Huntingdonshire, which, with
settlements, are computed to have covered a district of some
twenty square miles in extent. … There are several varieties
… and two especially have been remarked; the first, blue, or
slate-coloured, the other reddish-brown, or of a dark copper
colour."

_L. Jewett,
Grave Mounds,
page 152._

CASTRA, Roman.

"When a Roman army was in the field it never halted, even for
a single night, without throwing up an entrenchment capable of
containing the whole of the troops and their baggage. This
field-work was termed Castra. … The form of the camp was a
square, each side of which was 2,017 Roman feet in length. The
defences consisted of a ditch, (fossa,) the earth dug out,
being thrown inwards so as to form a rampart, (agger,) upon
the summit of which a palisade (vallum) was erected of wooden
stakes, (valli-sudes,) a certain number of which were carried
by each soldier, along with his entrenching tools."

_W. Ramsay,
Manual of Roman Antiquity,
chapter 12._

CASTRICUM, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER).

CASTRIOTS, The.

See ALBANIANS: A. D. 1443-1467.

CASTRUCCIO CASTRACANI, The despotism of.

See ITALY: A. D. 1313-1330.

CAT NATION, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: HURONS, &c.,
and IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY: THEIR CONQUESTS, &c.

CATACOMBS OF ROME, The.

"The Roman Catacombs—a name consecrated by long usage, but
having no etymological meaning, and not a very determinate
geographical one—are a vast labyrinth of galleries excavated
in the bowels of the earth in the hills around the Eternal
City; not in the hills on which the city itself was built, but
in those beyond the walls. Their extent is enormous, not as to
the amount of superficial soil which they underlie, for they
rarely, if ever, pass beyond the third milestone from the
city, but in the actual length of their galleries; for these
are often excavated on various levels, or piani, three, four,
or even five, one above the other, and they cross and recross
one another, some times at short intervals, on each of these
levels; so that, on the whole, there are certainly not less
that 350 miles of them; that is to say, if stretched out in
one continuous line, they would extend the whole length of
Italy itself. The galleries are from two to four feet in
width, and vary in height according to the nature of the rock
in which they are dug. The walls on both sides are pierced
with horizontal niches, like shelves in a book-case, or berths
in a steamer, and every niche once contained one or more dead
bodies. At various intervals this succession of shelves is
interrupted for a moment, that room may be made for a doorway
opening into a small chamber; and the walls of these chambers
are generally pierced with graves in the same way as the
galleries. These vast excavations once formed the ancient
Christian cemeteries of Rome; they were begun in apostolic
times, and continued to be used as burial-places of the
faithful until the capture of the city by Alaric in the year
410. In the third century, the Roman Church numbered
twenty-five or twenty-six of them, corresponding to the number
of her titles or parishes within the city; and besides these,
there are about twenty others, of smaller dimensions, isolated
monuments of special martyrs, or belonging to this or that
private family. Originally they all belonged to private
families or individuals, the villas or gardens in which they
were dug being the property of wealthy citizens who had
embraced the faith of Christ, and devoted of their substance
to His service. Hence their most ancient titles were taken
merely from the names of their lawful owners, many of which
still survive. … It has always been agreed among men of
learning who have had an opportunity of examining these
excavations, that they were used exclusively by the Christians
as places of burial and of holding religious assemblies.
Modern research has placed it beyond a doubt, that they were
also originally designed for this purpose and for no other."

_J. S. Northcote and W. R. Brownlow,
Roma Sotterranea,
book 1, chapter 1._

ALSO IN:
_A. P. Stanley,
Christian Institutions,
chapter 13._

CATALAN GRAND COMPANY, The.

The Catalan Grand Company was a formidable body of military
adventurers—mercenary soldiers—formed in Sicily during the
twenty years of war that followed the Sicilian Vespers. "High
pay and great license drew the best sinews in Catalonia and
Aragon into the mercenary battalions of Sicily and induced
them to submit to the severest discipline." The conclusion of
peace in 1302 threw this trained army out of employment, and
the greater part of its members were enlisted in the service
of Andronicus II., of the restored Greek empire at
Constantinople. They were under the command of one Roger de
Flor, who had been a Templar, degraded from his knighthood for
desertion, and afterwards a pirate; but whose military talents
were undoubted. The Grand Company soon quarrelled with the
Greek emperor; its leader was assassinated, and open war
declared. The Greek army was terribly defeated in a battle at
Apros, A. D. 1307, and the Catalans plundered Thrace for two
years without resistance. Gallipoli, their headquarters, to
which they brought their captives, became one of the great
slave marts of Europe. In 1310 they marched into the heart of
Greece, and were engaged in the service of Walter de Brienne,
Duke of Athens.
{399}
He, too, found them dangerous servants. Quarrels were followed
by war; the Duke perished in a battle (A. D. 1311) with his
Catalan mercenaries on the banks of the Cephissus; his
dukedom, embracing Attica and Bœotia, was the prize of their
victory. The widows and daughters of the Greek nobles who had
fallen were forced to marry the officers of the Catalans, who
thus settled themselves in family as well as estate. They
elected a Duke of Athens; but proceeded afterwards to make the
duchy an appanage of the House of Aragon. The title was held
by sons of the Aragonese kings of Sicily until 1377, when it
passed to Alphonso V., king of Aragon, and was retained by the
kings of Spain after the union of the crowns of Aragon and
Castile. The titular dukes were represented at Athens by
regents. "During the period the duchy of Athens was possessed
by the Sicilian branch of the house of Aragon, the Catalans
were incessantly engaged in wars with all their neighbours."
But, gradually, their military vigor and discipline were lost,
and their name and power in Greece disappeared about 1386,
when Athens and most of the territory of its duchy was
conquered by Nero Acciainoli, a rich and powerful Florentine,
who had become governor of Corinth, but acted as an
independent prince, and who founded a new ducal family.

_G. Finlay,
History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires,
book 4, chapter 2, section 2._

ALSO IN:
_G. Finlay,
History of Greece from its Conquest by the Crusaders,
chapter 7, section 3._

_E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 62.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

CATALANS: A. D. 1151.

The County of Barcelona united by marriage to Aragon.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1035-1258.

CATALANS: A. D. 12th-15th Centuries.
Commercial importance and municipal freedom of Barcelona.

See BARCELONA: 12th-16th CENTURIES.

CATALANS: A. D. 1461-1472.
Long but unsuccessful revolt against John II. of Aragon.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1368-1479.

CATALANS: A. D. 1639-1640.
Causes of disaffection and revolt.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1637-1640.

CATALANS: A. D. 1640-1652.
Revolt.
Renunciation of allegiance to the Spanish crown.
Annexation to France offered and accepted.
Re-subjection to Spain.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1640-1642; 1644-1646; 1648-1652.

CATALANS: A. D. 1705.
Adhesion to the Allies in the War of the Spanish Succession.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1705.

CATALANS: A. D. 1713-1714.
Betrayed and deserted by the Allies.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1713-1714.

----------CATALANS: End----------

CATALAUNIAN PLAINS.

See HUNS: A. D. 451.

CATALONIA.

See CATALANS.

CATANA, OR KATANA, Battle of.

See SYRACUSE: B. C. 397-396.

CATANIA.
Storming and capture by King Ferdinand (1849).

See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849.

CATAPAN.

See ITALY (SOUTHERN): A. D. 800-1016.

CATAWBAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY.

CATEAU-CAMBRESIS, Treaty of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1547-1559.

CATERANS.

"In 1384 an act was passed [by the Scotch parliament] for the
suppression of masterful plunderers, who get in the statute
their Highland name of 'cateran.' … This is the first of a
long succession of penal and denunciatory laws against the
Highlanders."

_J. H. Burton,
History of Scotland,
volume 3, chapter 27._

CATHARISTS, OR PATARENES.

"Among all the sects of the Middle Ages, very far the most
important in numbers and in radical antagonism to the Church,
were the Cathari, or the Pure, as with characteristic
sectarian assumption they styled themselves. Albigenses they
were called in Languedoc; Patarenes in North Italy; Good Men
by themselves. Stretching through central Europe to Thrace and
Bulgaria, they joined hands with the Paulicians of the East
and shared their errors. Whether these Cathari stood in lineal
historical descent from the old Manichæans, or had generated a
dualistic scheme of their own, is a question hard to answer,
and which has been answered in very different ways. This much,
however, is certain, that in all essentials they agreed with
them."

_R. C. Trench,
Lectures on Mediæval Church History,
lecture 15._

"In Italy, men supposed to hold the same belief [as that of
the Paulicians, Albigenses, etc.] went by the name of the
Paterini, a word of uncertain derivation, perhaps arising from
their willingness meekly to submit to all sufferings for
Christ's sake (pati), perhaps from a quarter in the city of
Milan named 'Pataria'; and more lately by that of Cathari (the
Pure, Puritans), which was soon corrupted into Gazari, whence
the German 'Ketzer,' the general word for a heretic."

_L. Mariotti,
Frà Dolcino and his Times,
chapter 1._

See, also, PAULICIANS, and ALBIGENSES.

CATHAY.

See CHINA: THE NAMES OF THE COUNTRY.

CATHELINEAU AND, THE INSURRECTION IN LA VENDEE.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (MARCH-APRIL);
(JUNE); and (JULY-DECEMBER).

CATHERINE I., Czarina of Russia, A. D. 1725-1727.

CATHERINE II., Czarina of Russia, A. D. 1762-1796.

CATHERINE and Jean d'Albret,
Queen and King of Navarre, A. D. 1503-1512.

CATHERINE de Medici: her part in French history.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1532-1547, to 1584-1589.

CATHOLIC ASSOCIATION AND THE CATHOLIC RENT IN IRELAND.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1811-1829.

CATHOLIC DEFENDERS.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1760-1798.

CATHOLIC LEAGUE, The.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1530-1531.

CATHOLIC LEAGUE IN FRANCE, The.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1576-1585 and after.

CATHOLICS (England): A. D. 1572-1679.
Persecutions.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1572-1603; 1585-1587; 1587-1588; 1678-1679.

CATHOLICS (Ireland): A. D. 1691-1782.
Oppression of the Penal Laws.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1691-1782.

CATHOLICS (England): A. D. 1778-1780.
Repeal of Penal laws.
No-Popery Riots.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1778-1780.

CATHOLICS (Ireland): A. D. 1795-1796.
Persecution by Protestant mobs.
Formation of the Orange Society.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1795-1796.

CATHOLICS (Ireland): A. D. 1801.
Pitt's promises broken by the King.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1801-1806.

CATHOLICS (England and Ireland): A. D. 1829.
Emancipation from civil disabilities.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1811-1829.

{400}

CATHOLICS, Old.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1869-1870.

CATILINE, The Conspiracy of.

See ROME: B. C. 63.

CATINI, The.

See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.

CATO THE YOUNGER,
and the last years of the Roman Republic.

See ROME: B. C. 63-58, to 47-46.

CATO STREET CONSPIRACY, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1820-1827.

CATRAIL, The.

An ancient rampart, the remains of which are found in southern
Scotland, running from the south-east corner of Peeblesshire
to the south side of Liddesdale. It is supposed to have marked
the boundary between the old Anglian kingdom of Bernicia and
the territory of the British kings of Alcluith (Dumbarton).

_W. F. Skene,
Celtic Scotland,
volume 1._

CATTANI. VASSALI. MASNADA. SERVI.

The feudal barons of northern Italy were called Cattani. In
the Florentine territory, "many of these Cattani, after having
been subdued and made citizens of Florence, still maintained
their feudal following, and were usually attended by troops of
retainers, half slaves, half freedmen, called 'Uomini di
Masnada,' who held certain possessions of them by the tenure
of military service, took oaths of fidelity, and appear to
have included every rank of person in the different Italian
states according to the quality of the chief; but without any
degradation of character being attached to such employment.
This kind of servitude, which could not be thrown off without
a formal act of manumission, was common in the north of Italy,
and began in the 11th century, when innumerable chieftains
started up owning no superior but the emperor. Being at
constant war with each other they sought every means of
creating a military following by granting lands to all ranks
of people, and it is probable that many slaves were then
partly emancipated for the purpose: such a condition, though
not considered dishonourable, was thus essentially tinged with
the colours of slavery, and so far differed from the 'Vassi'
and 'Vassali,' as well as from the 'Vavasours.' … Some
slight, perhaps unnecessary distinction is made between the
'Vassi,' who are supposed to have been vassals of the crown,
and the 'Vassali,' who were the vassals of great lords. The
'Vavasours' were the vassals of great vassals. … This union
[as described above] of 'Servi,' slaves, or vassals of one
chief, was called 'Masnada,' and hence the name 'Masnadieri,'
so often recurring in early Italian history; for the
commanders of these irregular bands were often retained in the
pay of the republic and frequently kept the field when the
civic troops had returned to their homes, or when the war was
not sufficiently important to bring the latter out with the
Carroccio. … Besides these military Villains, who were also
called 'Fedeli,' there were two other kinds of slaves amongst
the early Italians, namely prisoners of war and the labourers
attached to the soil, who were considered as cattle in every
respect except that of their superior utility and value: the
former species of slavery was probably soon dissolved by the
union of self-interest and humanity: the latter began to
decline in the 12th century, partly continued through the
13th, and vanished entirely in the 14th century."

_H. E. Napier,
Florentine History,
volume 1, page 624._

CATTI, The.

See CHATTI.

CATUVELLANI, The.

See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.

CAUCASUS AND THE CIRCASSIANS.
The Russian conquest.