Chapter IV: , VII (204)

The Numidian kingdom, over which the Romans, at the end of the
second Punic War, had settled their friend Masinissa, passed
at his death to his son Micipsa. In 118 B. C. Micipsa died,
leaving two young sons, and also a bastard nephew, Jugurtha,
whom he feared. He divided the kingdom between these three,
hoping to secure the fidelity of Jugurtha to his sons. It was
a policy that failed. Jugurtha made sure of what was given to
him, and then grasped at the rest. One of his young cousins
was soon cleared from his path by assassination; on the other
he opened war. This latter, Adherbal by name, appealed to
Rome, but Jugurtha despatched agents with money to bribe the
senate, and a commission sent over to divide Numidia gave him
the western and better half. The commissioners were no sooner
out of Africa than he began war upon Adherbal afresh, shut him
up in his strong capital, Cirta [B. C. 112], and placed the
city under siege. The Romans again interfered, but, he
captured Cirta, notwithstanding, and tortured Adherbal to
death. The corrupt party at Rome which Jugurtha kept in his
pay made every effort to stifle discussion of his nefarious
doings; but one bold tribune, C. Memmius, roused the people on
the subject and forced the senate to declare war against him.
Jugurtha's gold, however, was still effectual, and it
paralyzed the armies sent to Africa, by corrupting the venial
officers who commanded them. Once, Jugurtha went to Rome,
under a safe conduct, invited to testify as a witness against
the men whom he had bribed, but really expecting to be able to
further his own cause in the city. He found the people furious
against him and he only saved himself from being forced to
criminate his Roman senatorial mercenaries by buying a
tribune, who brazenly vetoed the examination of the Numidian
king. Jugurtha being, then, ordered out of Rome, the war
proceeded again, and in 109 B. C. the command passed to an
honest general, Q. Metellus, who took with him Caius Marius,
the most capable soldier of Rome, whose capability was at that
time not half understood. Under Metellus the Romans penetrated
Numidia to Zama, but failed to take the town, and narrowly
escaped a great disaster on the Muthul, where a serious battle
was fought. In 107 B. C. Metellus was superseded by Marius,
chosen consul for that year and now really beginning his
remarkable career. Meantime Jugurtha had gained an ally in
Bocchus, king of Mauretania, and Marius, after two campaigns
of doubtful result, found more to hope from diplomacy than
from war. With the help of Sulla,—his future great rival—who
had lately been sent over to his army, in command of a troop
of horse, he persuaded the Mauretanian king to betray Jugurtha
into his hands. The dreaded Numidian was taken to Rome [B. C.
104], exhibited in the triumph of Marius, and then brutally
thrust into the black dungeon called the Tullianum to die of
slow starvation. Bocchus was rewarded for his treachery by the
cession to him of part of Numidia; Marius, intoxicated with
the plaudits of Rome, first saved it from the Cimbri and then
stabbed it with his own sword; Sulla, inexplicable harbinger
of the coming Cæsars, bided his time.

_W. Ihne,
History of Rome,
book 7, chapter 8._

ALSO IN:
_G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 1, chapters 26-29._

_Sallust,
Jugurthine War._

NUMIDIA: B. C. 46.
The kingdom extinguished by Cæsar and annexed to Rome.

See ROME: B. C. 47-46.

NUMIDIA: A. D. 374-398.
Revolts of Firmus and Gildo.

See ROME: A. D. 396-398.

----------NUMIDIA: End--------

NUMIDIANS AND MAURI, The.

"The union of the Aryan invaders [of North Africa] with the
ancient populations of the coast sprung from Phut gave birth
to the Mauri, or Maurusii, whose primitive name it has been
asserted was Medes, probably an alteration of the word
Amazigh. The alliance of the same invaders with the Getulians
beyond the Atlas produced the Numidians. The Mauri were
agriculturists, and of settled habits; the Numidians, as their
Greek appellation indicates, led a nomadic life."

_F. Lenormant,
Manual of Ancient History of the East,
book 6, chapter 5 (volume 2)._

In northern Africa, "on the south and west of the immediate
territory of the Carthaginian republic, lived various races of
native Libyans who are commonly known by the name of
Numidians. But these were in no way, as their Greek name
('Nomads') would seem to imply, exclusively pastoral races.
Several districts in their possession, especially in the
modern Algeria, were admirably suited for agriculture. Hence
they had not only fixed and permanent abodes, but a number of
not unimportant cities, of which Hippo and Cirta, the
residences of the chief Numidian princes, were the most
considerable."

_W. Ihne,
History of Rome,
book 4, chapter 1 (volume 2)._

The various peoples of North Africa known anciently and
modernly as Libyans, Numidians, or Nomades, Mauri,
Mauritanians or Moors, Gaetulians and Berbers, belong
ethnographically to one family of men, distinguished alike
from the negroes and the Egyptians.

_T. Mommsen,
History of Rome,
book 8, chapter 13._

See, also, LIBYANS; CARTHAGE: B. C. 146;
PUNIC WAR, THE SECOND; and NUMIDIA: B. C. 118-104.

NUNCOMAR AND WARREN HASTINGS.

See INDIA: A. D. 1773-1785.

NUR MAHAL, OR NUR JAHAN, Empress of India.

See INDIA: A. D. 1605-1658.

----------NUREMBERG: Start--------

NUREMBERG.

"Nuremberg (Nürnberg) (Norimberga) is situated on the Regnitz,
in the centre of Middle Franconia, about 90 miles northwest of
Munich, to which it is second in size and importance, with a
population of about 90,000. The name is said to be derived
from the ancient inhabitants of Noricum, who migrated hither
about the year 451, on being driven from their early
settlements on the Danube by the Huns. Here they distinguished
themselves by their skill in the working of metals, which
abound in the neighbouring mountains. Before the eleventh
century the history of Nuremberg is enveloped in a mist of
impenetrable obscurity, from which it does not emerge until
the time of the Emperor Henry III., who issued an edict, dated
July 16, 1050, 'ad castrum Noremberc,' a proof that it was a
place of considerable importance even at this early period.
Nuremberg afterwards became the favourite residence of the
Emperor Henry IV."

_W. J. Wyatt,
History of Prussia,
volume 2, page 456._

{2391}

NUREMBERG: A. D. 1417.
Office of Burgrave bought by the city.

See BRANDENBURG: A. D. 1417-1640.

NUREMBERG: A. D. 1522-1524.
The two diets, and their recesses in favor of the Reformation.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1522-1525.

NUREMBERG: A. D. 1525.
Formal establishment of the Reformed Religion.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1522-1525.

NUREMBERG: A. D. 1529.
Joined in the Protest which gave rise to the name Protestants.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1525-1529.

NUREMBERG: A. D. 1532.
Pacification of Charles V. with the Protestants.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1530-1532.

NUREMBERG: A. D. 1632.
Welcome to Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden.
Siege by Wallenstein.
Battle on the Fürth.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1631-1632.

NUREMBERG: A. D. 1801-1803.
One of six free cities which survived the Peace of Luneville.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1801-1803.

NUREMBERG: A. D. 1806.
Loss of municipal freedom.
Absorption in the kingdom of Bavaria.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1805-1806.

----------NUREMBERG: End--------

NUYS, The Siege of

In 1474 Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, ambitious to
extend his dominions along the left bank of the Rhine, down to
the Netherlands, took advantage of a quarrel between the
citizens of Cologne and their prince-archbishop, to ally
himself with the latter. The citizens of Cologne had appointed
Herman of Hesse to be protector of the see, and he had
fortified himself at Nuys. Charles, with 60,000 men, laid
siege to the place, expecting to reduce it speedily. On the
contrary, he wasted months in the fruitless endeavor, and
became involved in the quarrel with the Swiss which brought
about his downfall. The abortive siege of Nuys was the
beginning of his disasters.

_C. M. Davies,
History of Holland,
part 2, chapter 2._

See BURGUNDY: A. D. 1476-1477.

NYANTICS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

NYSTAD, Peace of.
See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1719-1721.

O.

O. S.
Old Style.

See GREGORIAN CALENDAR.

OAK BOYS.

See. IRELAND: A. D. 1760-1798.

OATES, Titus, and the "Popish Plot."

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1678-1679.

OBELISKS, Egyptian.

See EGYPT: ABOUT B. C. 1700-1400.

OBERPFALZ.

See FRANCONIA: THE DUCHY AND THE CIRCLE.

OBES, The.

See GERUSIA;
and SPARTA: THE CONSTITUTION, &c.

OBLATES, The.

"The Oblates, or Volunteers, established by St. Charles
Borromeo in 1578, are a congregation of secular priests. …
Their special aim was to give edification to the diocese, and
to maintain the integrity of religion by the purity of their
lives, by teaching, and by zealously discharging the duties
committed to them by their bishop. These devoted ecclesiastics
were much loved by St. Charles. … Strange to say, they do not
seem to have been much appreciated elsewhere."

_J. Alzog,
Manual of Universal Church History,
volume 3, page 456._

OBNUNTIATIO.

See ÆLIAN AND FUFIAN LAWS.

OBOLLA.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 632-651.

OBOLUS.

See TALENT.

OBOTRITES, The.

See SAXONY: A. D. 1178-1183.

OBRENOVITCH DYNASTY, The.

See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES: 14-19TH CENTURIES (SERVIA).

OC, Langue d'.

See LANGUE D'OC.

OCANA, Battle of.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1809 (AUGUST-NOVEMBER).

OCCASIONAL CONFORMITY BILL.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1711-1714.

OCEAN STEAM NAVIGATION, The beginnings of.

See STEAM NAVIGATION: ON THE OCEAN.

OCHLOCRACY.

This term was applied by the Greeks to an unlimited democracy,
where rights were made conditional on no gradations of
property, and where "provisions were made, not so much that
only a proved and worthy citizen should be elected, as that
everyone, without distinction, should be eligible for
everything."

_G. Schömann,
Antiquity of Greece: The State,
part 1, chapter 3._

O'CONNELL, Daniel, The political agitations of.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1811-1829, to 1841-1848.

OCTAETËRIS, The.

See METON, THE YEAR OF.

OCTAVIUS, Caius (afterwards called Augustus), and the founding of the Roman Empire.

See ROME: B. C. 44, after Cæsar's death,
to B. C. 31-A. D. 14.

OCTOBER CLUB, The.

See CLUBS: THE OCTOBER.

ODAL.

See ADEL.

ODELSRET.

See CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY, TITLE V., ARTICLE 16.

ODELSTHING.

See CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY.

ODENATHUS, The rule at Palmyra of.

See PALMYRA: THE RISE AND THE FALL.

ODEUM AT ATHENS, The.

"Pericles built, at the south-eastern base of the citadel, the
Odeum, which differed from the neighbouring theatre in this,
that the former was a covered space, in which musical
performances took place before a less numerous public. The
roof, shaped like a tent, was accounted an imitation of the
gorgeous tent pitched of old by Xerxes upon the soil of
Attica."

_E. Curtius,
History of Greece,
book 3, chapter 3._

ODOACER, and the end of the line of Roman Emperors in the West.

See ROME: A. D. 455-476; and 488-526.

ODYSSEY, The.

See HOMER.

ŒA.

See LEPTIS MAGNA.

ŒCUMENICAL, OR ECUMENICAL, COUNCIL.

A general or universal council of the entire Christian Church.
Twenty such councils are recognized by the Roman Catholic
Church.

See COUNCILS OF THE CHURCH.

{2392}

ŒKIST.

The chief-founder of a Greek colonial city,—the leader of a
colonizing settlement, —was so entitled.

_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapter 47._

OELAND, Naval battle of (1713).

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1707-1718.

ŒNOË, Battle of.

A battle of some importance in the Corinthian War, fought
about B. C. 388, in the valley of the Charander, on the road
from Argos to Mantinea. The Lacedæmonians were defeated by the
Argives and Athenians.

_E. Curtius,
History of Greece,
book 5, chapter 4._

ŒNOPHYTA, Battle of (B. C. 456).

See GREECE: B. C. 458-456.

ŒNOTRIANS, The.

"The territory [in Italy] known to Greek writers of the fifth
century B. C. by the names of Œnotria on the coast of the
Mediterranean, and Italia on that of the Gulfs of Tarentum and
Squillace, included all that lies south of a line drawn across
the breadth of the country, from the Gulf of Poseidonia
(Pæstum) and the river Silarus on the Mediterranean Sea, to
the north-west corner of the Gulf of Tarentum. It was bounded
northwards by the Iapygians and Messapians, who occupied the
Salentine peninsula and the country immediately adjoining to
Tarentum, and by the Peuketians on the Ionic Gulf. … This
Œnotrian or Pelasgian race were the population whom the Greek
colonists found there on their arrival. They were known
apparently under other names, such as the Sikels [Sicels],
(mentioned even in the Odyssey, though their exact locality in
that poem cannot be ascertained) the Italians, or Itali,
properly so called—the Morgetes,—and the Chaones,—all of them
names of tribes either cognate or subdivisional. The Chaones
or Chaonians are also found, not only in Italy, but in Epirus,
as one of the most considerable of the Epirotic tribes. … From
hence, and from some other similarities of name, it has been
imagined that Epirots, Œnotrians, Sikels, &c., were all names
of cognate people, and all entitled to be comprehended under
the generic appellation of Pelasgi. That they belonged to the
same ethnical kindred there seems fair reason to presume, and
also that in point of language, manners, and character, they
were not very widely separated from the ruder branches of the
Hellenic race. It would appear, too (as far as any judgment
can be formed on a point essentially obscure) that the
Œnotrians were ethnically akin to the primitive population of
Rome and Latium on one side, as they were to the Epirots on
the other; and that tribes of this race, comprising Sikels and
Itali properly so called, as sections, had at one time
occupied most of the territory from the left bank of the river
Tiber southward between the Appenines and the Mediterranean."

_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapter 22._

OESTERREICH.

See AUSTRIA.

ŒTA.

See THESSALY.

OFEN, Sieges and capture of (1684-1686).

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1683-1699.

OFFA, King of Mercia, A. D. 758-794.

OFFA'S DYKE.

An earthen rampart which King Offa, of Mercia, in the eighth
century, built from the mouth of the Wye to the mouth of the
Tee, to divide his kingdom from Wales and protect it from
Welsh incursions. A few remains of it are still to be seen.

_J. Rhys,
Celtic Britain._

OGALALAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY.

OGAM.

See OGHAM.

OGDEN TRACT, The.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1786-1799.

OGHAM INSCRIPTIONS.

"In the south and south-western counties of Ireland are to be
found, in considerable numbers, a class of inscribed
monuments, to which the attention of Irish archæologists has
been from time to time directed, but with comparatively little
result. … They [the inscriptions] are found engraved on pillar
stones in that archaic character known to Irish philologists
as the Ogham, properly pronounced Oum, and in an ancient
dialect of the Gaedhelic (Gaelic). These monuments are almost
exclusively found in the counties of Kerry, Cork, and
Waterford, numbering, as far as I have been able to ascertain,
147; the rest of Ireland supplies 13. … Again it is worthy of
remark, that while 29 Irish counties cannot boast of an Ogham
monument, they have been found in England, Wales, and
Scotland. In Devonshire, at Fardel, a stone has been
discovered bearing not only a fine and well-preserved Ogham
inscription, but also one in Romano-British letters. It is now
deposited in the British Museum. … The Ogham letters, as found
on Megalithic monuments, are formed by certain combinations of
a simple short line, placed in reference to one continuous
line, called the fleasg, or stem line; these combinations
range from one to five, and their values depend upon their
being placed above, across, or below the stem line; there are
five consonants above, five consonants below, and five
consonants across the line, two of which, NG and ST are
double, and scarcely ever used. The vowels are represented by
oval dots, or very short lines across the stem line. … The
characters in general use on the monuments are 18 in number. …
It may be expected from me that I should offer some conjecture
as to the probable age of this mode of writing. This, I
honestly acknowledge, I am unable to do, even approximately. …
I am however decided in one view, and it is this, that the
Ogham was introduced into Ireland long anterior to
Christianity, by a powerful colony who landed on the
south-west coast, who spread themselves along the southern and
round the eastern shores, who ultimately conquered or settled
the whole island, imposing their language upon the aborigines,
if such preceded them."

_R. R. Brash,
Trans. Int. Cong. of Prehistoric Archæology, 1868._

ALSO IN:
_R. R. Brash,
Ogam Inscribed Monuments._

OGLETHORPE'S GEORGIA COLONY.

See GEORGIA: A. D. 1732-1739.

OGULNIAN LAW, The.

See ROME: B. C. 300.

OGYGIA.

See IRELAND: THE NAME.

----------OHIO: Start--------

OHIO:
The Name.

"The words Ohio, Ontario, and Onontio (or Yonnondio)—which
should properly be pronounced as if written 'Oheeyo,'
'Ontareeyo,' and 'Ononteeyo'—are commonly rendered 'Beautiful
River,' 'Beautiful Lake,' 'Beautiful Mountain.' This,
doubtless, is the meaning which each of the words conveys to
an Iroquois of the present day, unless he belongs to the
Tuscarora tribe. But there can be no doubt that the
termination 'īo' (otherwise written 'iyo,' 'iio,' 'eeyo,'
etc.) had originally the sense, not of 'beautiful,' but of
'great.' … Ontario is derived from the Huron 'yontare,' or
'ontare,' lake (Iroquois, 'oniatare'), with this termination.
… Ohio, in like manner, is derived, as M. Cuoq in the valuable
notes to his Lexicon (p. 159) informs us, from the obsolete
'ohia,' river, now only used in the compound form 'ohionha.'"

_H. Hale,
The Iroquois Book of Rites,
appendix, note B._

{2393}

OHIO: (Valley):
The aboriginal inhabitants.

See AMERICA, PREHISTORIC;
AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY,
ALLEGHANS, DELAWARES, SHAWANESE.

OHIO: (Valley): A. D. 1700-1735.
The beginnings of French Occupation.

See CANADA: A. D. 1700-1735.

OHIO: (Valley): A. D. 1748-1754.
The first movements of the struggle
of French and English for possession.

"The close of King George's War was marked by an extraordinary
development of interest in the Western country. The
Pennsylvanians and Virginians had worked their way well up to
the eastern foot-hills of the last range of mountains
separating them from the interior. Even the Connecticut men
were ready to overleap the province of New York and take
possession of the Susquehanna. The time for the English
colonists to attempt the Great Mountains in force had been
long in coming, but it had plainly arrived. In 1748 the
Ingles-Draper settlement, the first regular settlement of
English-speaking men on the Western waters, was made at
'Draper's Meadow,' on the New River, a branch of the Kanawha.
The same year Dr. Thomas Walker, accompanied by a number of
Virginia gentlemen and a party of hunters, made their way by
Southwestern Virginia into Kentucky and Tennessee. … The same
year the Ohio company, consisting of thirteen prominent
Virginians and Marylanders, and one London merchant, was
formed. Its avowed objects were to speculate in Western lands,
and to carry on trade on an extensive scale with the Indians.
It does not appear to have contemplated the settlement of a
new colony. The company obtained from the crown a conditional
grant of 500,000 acres of land in the Ohio Valley, to be
located mainly between the Monongahela and Kanawha Rivers, and
it ordered large shipments of goods for the Indian trade from
London. … In 1750 the company sent Christopher Gist, a veteran
woodsman and trader living on the Yadkin, down the northern
side of the Ohio, with instructions, as Mr. Bancroft
summarizes them, 'to examine the Western country as far as the
Falls of the Ohio; to look for a large tract of good level
land; to mark the passes in the mountains; to trace the
courses of the rivers; to count the falls; to observe the
strength of the Indian nations.' Under these instructions,
Gist made the first English exploration of Southern Ohio of
which we have any report. The next year he made a similar
exploration of the country south of the Ohio, as far as the
Great Kanawha. … Gist's reports of his explorations added to
the growing interest in the over-mountain country. At that
time the Ohio Valley was waste and unoccupied, save by the
savages, but adventurous traders, mostly Scotch-Irish, and
commonly men of reckless character and loose morals, made
trading excursions as far as the River Miami. The Indian town
of Pickawillany, on the upper waters of that stream, became a
great centre of English trade and influence. Another evidence
of the growing interest in the West is the fact that the
colonial authorities, in every direction, were seeking to
obtain Indian titles to the Western lands, and to bind the
Indians to the English by treaties. The Iroquois had long
claimed, by right of conquest, the country from the Cumberland
Mountains to the Lower Lakes and the Mississippi, and for many
years the authorities of New York had been steadily seeking to
gain a firm treaty-hold of that country. In 1684, the
Iroquois, at Albany, placed themselves under the protection of
King Charles and the Duke of York [see NEW YORK: A. D. 1684];
in 1726, they conveyed all their lands in trust to England
[see NEW YORK: A. D. 1726], to be protected and defended by
his Majesty to and for the use of the grantors and their
heirs, which was an acknowledgment by the Indians of what the
French had acknowledged thirteen years before at Utrecht. In
1744, the very year that King George's War began, the deputies
of the Iroquois at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, confirmed to
Maryland the lands within that province, and made to Virginia
a deed that covered the whole West as effectually as the
Virginian interpretation of the charter of 1609 [see VIRGINIA:
A. D. 1744]. … This treaty is of the greatest importance in
subsequent history; it is the starting-point of later
negotiations with the Indians concerning Western lands. It
gave the English their first real treaty-hold upon the West;
and it stands in all the statements of the English claim to
the Western country, side by side with the Cabot voyages. …
There was, indeed, no small amount of dissension among the
colonies, and it must not be supposed that they were all
working together to effect a common purpose, The royal
governors could not agree. There were bitter dissensions
between governors and assemblies. Colony was jealous of
colony. … Fortunately, the cause of England and the colonies
was not abandoned to politicians. The time had come for the
Anglo-Saxon column, that had been so long in reaching them, to
pass the Endless Mountains; and the logic of events swept
everything into the Westward current. In the years following
the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle the French were not idle.
Galissonière, the governor of Canada, thoroughly comprehended
what was at stake. In 1749 he sent Cèloron de Bienville into
the Ohio Valley, with a suitable escort of whites and savages,
to take formal possession of the valley in the name of the
King of France, to propitiate the Indians, and in all ways
short of actual warfare to thwart the English plans. Bienville
crossed the portage from Lake Erie to Lake Chautauqua, the
easternmost of the portages from the Lakes to the southern
streams ever used by the French, and made his way by the
Alleghany River and the Ohio as far as the Miami, and returned
by the Maumee and Lake Erie to Montreal. His report to the
governor was anything but reassuring. He found the English
traders swarming in the valley, and the Indians generally well
disposed to the English. Nor did French interests improve the
two or three succeeding years. The Marquis Duquesne, who
succeeded Galissonière, soon discovered the drift of events.
He saw the necessity of action; he was clothed with power to
act, and he was a man of action, And so, early in the year
1753, while the English governors and assemblies were still
hesitating and disputing, he sent a strong force by Lake
Ontario and Niagara to seize and hold the northeastern
branches of the Ohio. This was a master stroke: unless
recalled, it would lead to war; and Duquesne was not the man
to recall it.
{2394}
This force, passing over the portage between Presque Isle and
French Creek, constructed Forts Le Bœuf and Venango, the
second at the confluence of French Creek and the Alleghany
River."

_B. A. Hinsdale,
The Old Northwest,
chapter 5._

ALSO IN:
_J. H. Perkins,
Annals of the West,
chapter 2._

_B. Fernow
The Ohio Valley in Colonial Days,
chapter 5._

See, also, CANADA: A. D. 1750-1753.

_O. H. Marshall,
De Celoron's Expedition to the Ohio in 1749
(Historical Writings, pages 237-274)._

_N. B. Craig,
The Olden Time,
volume 1, pages 1-10._

OHIO: (Valley): A. D. 1754.
The opening battle.
Washington's first campaign.

The planting of the French at Forts Le Bœuf and Venango "put
them during high water in easy communication by boat with the
Alleghany River. French tact conciliated the Indians, and
where that failed arrogance was sufficient, and the expedition
would have pushed on to found new forts, but sickness weakened
the men, and Marin, the commander, now dying, saw it was all
he could do to hold the two forts, while he sent the rest of
his force back to Montreal to recuperate. Late in the autumn
Legardeur de Saint-Pierre arrived at Le Bœuf, as the successor
of Marin. He had not been long there when on the 11th of
December [1753] a messenger from Governor Dinwiddie, of
Virginia, with a small escort, presented himself at the fort.
The guide of the party was Christopher Gist; the messenger was
George Washington, then adjutant-general of the Virginia
militia. Their business was to inform the French commander
that he was building forts on English territory, and that he
would do well to depart peaceably. … At Le Bœuf Washington
tarried three days, during which Saint-Pierre framed his
reply, which was in effect that he must hold his post, while
Dinwiddie's letter was sent to the French commander at Quebec.
It was the middle of February, 1754, when Washington reached
Williamsburg on his return, and made his report to Dinwiddie.
The result was that Dinwiddie drafted 200 men from the
Virginia militia, and despatched them under Washington to
build a fort at the forks of the Ohio. The Virginia assembly,
forgetting for the moment its quarrel with the governor, voted
£10,000 to be expended, but only under the direction of a
committee of its own. Dinwiddie found difficulty in getting
the other colonies to assist, and the Quaker element in
Pennsylvania prevented that colony from being the immediate
helper which it might, from its position, have become.
Meanwhile some backwoodsmen had been pushed over the mountains
and had set to work on a fort at the forks. A much larger
French force under Contrecœur soon summoned them, and the
English retired. The French immediately began the erection of
Fort Duquesne [on the site now covered by the city of
Pittsburgh]. While this was doing, Dinwiddie was toiling with
tardy assemblies and their agents to organize a regiment to
support the backwoodsmen. Joshua Fry was to be its colonel,
with Washington as second in command. The latter, with a
portion of the men, had already pushed forward to Will's
Creek, the present Cumberland. Later he advanced with 150 men
to Great Meadows, where he learned that the French, who had
been reinforced, had sent out a party from their new fort,
marching towards him. Again he got word from an Indian —who,
from his tributary character towards the Iroquois, was called
Half-King, and who had been Washington's companion on his trip
to Le Bœuf—that this chieftain with some followers had tracked
two men to a dark glen, where he believed the French party
were lurking. Washington started with forty men to join
Half-King, and under his guidance they approached the glen and
found the French. Shots were exchanged. The French leader,
Jumonville, was killed, and all but one of his followers were
taken or slain. The mission of Jumonville was to scour for
English, by order of Contrecœur, now in command of Duquesne,
and to bear a summons to any he could find, warning them to
retire from French territory. The precipitancy of Washington's
attack gave the French the chance to impute to Washington the
crime of assassination; but it seems to have been a pretence
on the part of the French to cover a purpose which Jumonville
had of summoning aid from Duquesne, while his concealment was
intended to shield him till its arrival. Rash or otherwise,
this onset of the youthful Washington began the war. The
English returned to Great Meadows, and while waiting for
reinforcements from Fry, Washington threw up some
entrenchments, which he called Fort Necessity. The men from
Fry came without their leader, who had sickened and died, and
Washington, succeeding to the command of the regiment, found
himself at the head of 300 men, increased soon by an
independent company from South Carolina. Washington again
advanced toward Gist's settlement, when, fearing an attack, he
sent back for Mackay, whom he had left with a company of
regulars at Fort Necessity. Rumors thickening of an advance of
the French, the English leader again fell back to Great
Meadows, resolved to fight there. It was now the first of
July, 1754. Coulon de Villiers, a brother of Jumonville, was
now advancing from Duquesne. The attack was made on a rainy
day, and for much of the time a thick mist hung between the
combatants. After dark a parley resulted in Washington's
accepting terms offered by the French, and the English marched
out with the honors of war. The young Virginian now led his
weary followers back to Will's Creek. … Thus they turned their
backs upon the great valley, in which not an English flag now
waved."

_J. Winsor,
The Struggle for the Great Valleys of North America
(Narrative and Critical History of America,
volume 5, chapter 8)._

ALSO IN:
_W. Irving,
Life of Washington,
volume 1, chapters 7-12._

_H. C. Lodge,
George Washington,
volume 1, chapter 3._

_N. B. Craig,
The Olden Time,
volume 1, pages 10-62._

OHIO: (Valley): A. D. 1755.
Braddock's defeat.
The French possess the West and
devastate the English frontiers.

"Now the English Government awoke to the necessity of vigorous
measures to rescue the endangered Valley of the Ohio. A
campaign was planned which was to expel the French from Ohio,
and wrest from them some portions of their Canadian territory.
The execution of this great design was intrusted to General
Braddock, with a force which it was deemed would overbear all
resistance.
{2395}
Braddock was a veteran who had seen the wars of forty years. …
He was a brave and experienced soldier, and a likely man, it
was thought, to do the work assigned to him. But that proved a
sad miscalculation. Braddock had learned the rules of war; but
he had no capacity to comprehend its principles. In the
pathless forests of America he could do nothing better than
strive to give literal effect to those maxims which he had
found applicable in the well-trodden battlegrounds of Europe.
The failure of Washington in his first campaign had not
deprived him of public confidence. Braddock heard such
accounts of his efficiency that he invited him to join his
staff. Washington, eager to efface the memory of his defeat,
gladly accepted the offer. The troops disembarked at
Alexandria. … After some delay, the army, with such
reinforcements as the province afforded, began its march.
Braddock's object was to reach Fort Du Quesne, the great
centre of French influence on the Ohio. … Fort Du Quesne had
been built [or begun] by the English, and taken from them by
the French. It stood at the confluence of the Alleghany and
Monongahela; which rivers, by their union at this point, form
the Ohio. It was a rude piece of fortification, but the
circumstances admitted of no better. … Braddock had no doubt
that the fort would yield to him directly he showed himself
before it. Benjamin Franklin looked at the project with his
shrewd, cynical eye. He told Braddock that he would assuredly
take the fort if he could only reach it; but that the long
slender line which his army must form in its march 'would be
cut like thread into several pieces' by the hostile Indians.
Braddock 'smiled at his ignorance.' Benjamin offered no
further opinion. It was his duty to collect horses and
carriages for the use of the expedition, and he did what was
required of him in silence. The expedition crept slowly
forward, never achieving more than three or four miles in a
day; stopping, as Washington said, 'to level every mole-hill,
to erect a bridge over every brook.' It left Alexandria on the
20th April. On the 9th July Braddock, with half his army, was
near the fort. There was yet no evidence that resistance was
intended. No enemy had been seen; the troops marched on as to
assured victory. So confident was their chief that he refused
to employ scouts, and did not deign to inquire what enemy
might be lurking near. The march was along a road twelve feet
wide, in a ravine, with high ground in front and on both
sides. Suddenly the Indian war-whoop burst from the woods. A
murderous fire smote down the troops. The provincials, not
unused to this description of warfare, sheltered themselves
behind trees and fought with steady courage. Braddock,
clinging to his old rules, strove to maintain his order of
battle on the open ground. A carnage, most grim and
lamentable, was the result. His undefended soldiers were shot
down by an unseen foe. For three hours the struggle lasted;
then the men broke and fled in utter rout and panic. Braddock,
vainly fighting, fell mortally wounded, and was carried off
the field by some of his soldiers. The poor pedantic man never
got over his astonishment at a defeat so inconsistent with the
established rules of war. 'Who would have thought it?' he
murmured, as they bore him from the field. He scarcely spoke
again, and died in two or three days. Nearly 800 men, killed
and wounded, were lost in this disastrous encounter —about
one-half of the entire force engaged. All the while England
and France were nominally at peace. But now war was declared."

_R. Mackenzie,
America: a history,
book 2, chapter 3._

"The news of the defeat caused a great revulsion of feeling.
The highest hopes had been built on Braddock's expedition. …
From this height of expectation men were suddenly plunged into
the yawning gulf of gloom and alarm. The whole frontier lay
exposed to the hatchet and the torch of the remorseless red
man. … The apprehensions of the border settlers were soon
fully justified. Dumas, who shortly succeeded de Contrecœur in
the command at Fort Duquesne, set vigorously to work to put
the Indians on the war-path against the defenceless
settlements. 'M. de Contrecœur had not been gone a week,' he
writes, 'before I had six or seven different war parties in
the field at once, always accompanied by Frenchmen. Thus far,
we have lost only two officers and a few soldiers; but the
Indian villages are full of prisoners of every age and sex.
The enemy has lost far more since the battle than on the day
of his defeat.' All along the frontier the murderous work went
on."

_T. J. Chapman,
The French in the Allegheny Valley,
pages 71-73._

ALSO IN:
_F. Parkman,
Montcalm and Wolfe,
volume 1, chapters 7 and 10._

_W. Sargent,
History of Braddock's Expedition
(Pennsylvania Historical Society Mem's, volume 5)._

_N. B. Craig,
The Olden Time,
volume 1, pages 64-133._

OHIO:(Valley): A. D. 1758.
Retirement of the French.
Abandonment of Fort Duquesne.

See CANADA: A. D. 1758.

OHIO:(Valley): A. D. 1763.
Relinquishment to Great Britain by the Treaty of Paris.

See SEVEN YEARS WAR: THE TREATIES.

OHIO:(Valley): A. D. 1763.
The king's proclamation excluding settlers.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1763.

OHIO:(Valley): A. D; 1763-1764.
Pontiac's War.

See PONTIAC'S WAR

OHIO:(Valley): A. D. 1765-1768.
Indian Treaties of German Flats and Fort Stanwix.
Pretended cession of lands south of the Ohio.
The Walpole Company and its proposed Vandalia settlement.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1765-1768.

OHIO:(Valley): A. D. 1772-1782.
The Moravian settlement and mission on the Muskingum.

See MORAVIAN BRETHREN.

OHIO:(Valley): A. D. 1774.
Lord Dunmore's War with the Indians.
The territorial claims of Virginia.
The wrongs of Logan and his famous speech.

"On the eve of the Revolution, in 1774, the frontiersmen had
planted themselves firmly among the Alleghanies. Directly west
of them lay the untenanted wilderness, traversed only by the
war parties of the red men, and the hunting parties of both
reds and whites. No settlers had yet penetrated it, and until
they did so there could be within its borders no chance of
race warfare. … But in the southwest and the northwest alike,
the area of settlement already touched the home lands of the
tribes. … It was in the northwest that the danger of collision
was most imminent; for there the whites and Indians had
wronged one another for a generation, and their interests
were, at the time, clashing more directly than ever. Much the
greater part of the western frontier was held or claimed by
Virginia, whose royal governor was, at the time, Lord Dunmore.
{2396}
… The short but fierce and eventful struggle that now broke
out was fought wholly by Virginians, and was generally known
by the name of Lord Dunmore's war. Virginia, under her
charter, claimed that her boundaries ran across to the South
Seas, to the Pacific Ocean. The king of Britain had graciously
granted her the right to take so much of the continent as lay
within these lines, provided she could win it from the
Indians, French, and Spaniards. … A number of grants had been
made with the like large liberality, and it was found that
they sometimes conflicted with one another. The consequence
was that while the boundaries were well marked near the coast,
where they separated Virginia from the long-settled regions of
Maryland and North Carolina, they became exceeding vague and
indefinite the moment they touched the mountains. Even at the
south this produced confusion, … but at the north the effect
was still more confusing, and nearly resulted in bringing
about an inter-colonial war between Pennsylvania and Virginia.
The Virginians claimed all of extreme western Pennsylvania,
especially Fort Pitt and the valley of the Monongahela, and,
in 1774, proceeded boldly to exercise jurisdiction therein.
Indeed a strong party among the settlers favored the Virginian
claim. … The interests of the Virginians and Pennsylvanians
not only conflicted in respect to the ownership of the land,
but also in respect to the policy to be pursued regarding the
Indians. The former were armed colonists, whose interest it
was to get actual possession of the soil; whereas in
Pennsylvania the Indian trade was very important and
lucrative. … The interests of the white trader from
Pennsylvania and of the white settler from Virginia were so
far from being identical that they were usually diametrically
opposite. The northwestern Indians had been nominally at peace
with the whites for ten years, since the close of Bouquet's
campaign. … Each of the ten years of nominal peace saw plenty
of bloodshed. Recently they had been seriously alarmed by the
tendency of the whites to encroach on the great
hunting-grounds south of the Ohio. … The cession by the
Iroquois of the same hunting-grounds, at the treaty of Fort
Stanwix [see UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1765-1768], while
it gave the whites a colorable title, merely angered the
northwestern Indians. Half a century earlier they would hardly
have dared dispute the power of the Six Nations to do what
they chose with any land that could be reached by their war
parties; but in 1774 they felt quite able to hold their own
against their old oppressors. … The savages grew continually
more hostile, and in the fall of 1773 their attacks became so
frequent that it was evident a general outbreak was at hand. …
The Shawnees were the leaders in all these outrages; but the
outlaw bands, such as the Mingos and Cherokees, were as bad,
and parties of Wyandots and Delawares, as well as of the
various Miami and Wabash tribes, joined them. Thus the spring
of 1774 opened with everything ripe for an explosion. … The
borderers were anxious for a war; and Lord Dunmore was not
inclined to baulk them. … Unfortunately the first stroke fell
on friendly Indians." Dunmore's agent or lieutenant in the
country, one Dr. Conolly, issued an open letter in April which
was received by the backwoodsmen as a declaration and
authorization of war. One band of these, led by a Maryland
borderer, Michael Cresap, proceeded to hostilities at once by
ambushing and shooting down some friendly Shawnees who were
engaged in trade. This same party then set out to attack the
camp of the famous chief Logan, whose family and followers
were then dwelling at Yellow Creek, some 50 miles away. Logan
was "an Iroquois warrior, who lived at that time away from the
bulk of his people, but who was a man of note … among the
outlying parties of Senecas and Mingos, and the fragments of
broken tribes that dwelt along the upper Ohio. … He was
greatly liked and respected by all the white hunters and
frontiersmen whose friendship and respect were worth having;
they admired him for his dexterity and prowess, and they loved
him for his straightforward honesty, and his noble loyalty to
his friends." Cresap's party, after going some miles toward
Logan's camp, "began to feel ashamed of their mission; calling
a halt, they discussed the fact that the camp they were
preparing to attack consisted exclusively of friendly Indians,
and mainly of women and children; and forthwith abandoned
their proposed trip and returned home. … But Logan's people
did not profit by Cresap's change of heart. On the last day of
April a small party of men, women, and children, including
almost all of Logan's kin, left his camp and crossed the river
to visit Greathouse [another borderer, of a more brutal type],
as had been their custom; for he made a trade of selling rum
to the savages, though Cresap had notified him to stop. The
whole party were plied with liquor, and became helplessly
drunk, in which condition Greathouse and his associated
criminals fell on and massacred them, nine souls in all. … At
once the frontier was in a blaze, and the Indians girded
themselves for revenge. … They confused the two massacres,
attributing both to Cresap, whom they well knew as a warrior.
… Soon all the back country was involved in the unspeakable
horrors of a bloody Indian war," which lasted, however, only
till the following October. Governor Dunmore, during the
summer, collected some 3,000 men, one division of which he led
personally to Fort Pitt and thence down the Ohio,
accomplishing nothing of importance. The other division,
composed exclusively of backwoodsmen, under General Andrew
Lewis, marched to the mouth of the Kanawha River, and there,
at Point Pleasant, the cape of land jutting out between the
Ohio and the Kanawha, they fought, on the 10th of October, a
great battle with the Indians which practically ended the war.
This is sometimes called the battle of Point Pleasant, and
sometimes the battle of the Great Kanawha. "It was the most
closely contested of any battle ever fought with the
northwestern Indians; and it was the only victory gained over
a large body of them by a force but slightly superior in
numbers. … Its results were most important. It kept the
northwestern tribes quiet for the first two years of the
Revolutionary struggle; and above all it rendered possible the
settlement of Kentucky, and therefore the winning of the West.
Had it not been for Lord Dunmore's War, it is more than likely
that when the colonies achieved their freedom they would have
found their western boundary fixed at the Alleghany
Mountains."
{2397}
For some time after peace had been made with the other chiefs
Logan would not join in it. When he did yield a sullen assent,
Lord Dunmore "was obliged to communicate with him through a
messenger, a frontier veteran named John Gibson. … To this
messenger Logan was willing to talk. Taking him aside, he
suddenly addressed him in a speech that will always retain its
place as perhaps the finest outburst of savage eloquence of
which we have any authentic record. The messenger took it down
in writing, translating it literally." The authenticity of
this famous speech of Logan has been much questioned, but
apparently with no good ground.

_T. Roosevelt,
The Winning of the West,
volume 1, chapters 8-9.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/11941_

ALSO IN:
_J. H. Perkins,
Annals of the West,
chapter 5._

_J. G. M. Ramsey,
Annals of Tennessee,
page 112._

_V. A. Lewis,
History of West Virginia,
chapter 9._

_J. R. Gilmore (E. Kirke),
The Rear-guard of the Revolution,
chapter 4._

OHIO: (Valley): A. D. 1774.
Embraced in the Province of Quebec.

See CANADA: A. D. 1763-1774.

OHIO: (Valley): A. D. 1778-1779.
Conquest of the Northwest from the British by the Virginia
General Clark, and its annexation to the Kentucky
District of Virginia.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1778-1779 CLARK'S CONQUEST.

OHIO: (Valley): A. D. 1781-1786.
Conflicting territorial claims of Virginia, New York and
Connecticut.
Their cession to the United States,
except the Western Reserve of Connecticut.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1781-1786.

OHIO: (Valley): A: D. 1784.
Included in the proposed States of Metropotamia, Washington,
Saratoga and Pelisipia.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1784.

OHIO: (Valley): A. D. 1786-1788.
The Ohio Company of Revolutionary soldiers
and their settlement at Marietta.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1786-1788.

OHIO: (Valley): A. D. 1786-1796.
Western Reserve of Connecticut.
Founding of Cleveland.

In September, 1786, Connecticut ceded to Congress the western
territory which she claimed under her charter (see UNITED
STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1781-1786; and PENNSYLVANIA: A. D.
1753-1799), reserving, however, from the cession a tract
"bounded north by the line of 42° 2', or, rather, the
international line, east by the western boundary of
Pennsylvania, south by the 41st parallel, and west by a line
parallel with the eastern boundary and distant from it 120
miles—supposed, at the time, to be equal in extent to the
Susquehanna tract given to Pennsylvania, 1782. … This
territory Connecticut was said 'to reserve,' and it soon came
to be called 'The Connecticut Western Reserve,' 'The Western
Reserve,' etc. … On May 11, 1792, the General Assembly
quit-claimed to the inhabitants of several Connecticut towns
who had lost property in consequence of the incursions into
the State made by the British troops in the Revolution, or
their legal representatives when they were dead, and to their
heirs and assigns, forever, 500,000 acres lying across the
western end of the reserve, bounded north by the lake shore. …
The total number of sufferers, as reported, was 1,870, and the
aggregate losses, £161,548, 11s., 6½. The grant was of the
soil only. These lands are known in Connecticut history as
'The Sufferers' Lands,' in Ohio history as 'The Fire Lands.'
In 1796 the Sufferers were incorporated in Connecticut, and in
1803 in Ohio, under the title 'The Proprietors of the
Half-million Acres of Land lying south of Lake Erie.' … In
May, 1793, the Connecticut Assembly offered the remaining part
of the Reserve for sale." In September, 1795, the whole tract
was sold, without surveyor measurement, for $1,200,000, and
the Connecticut School Fund, which amounts to something more
than two millions of dollars, consists wholly of the proceeds
of that sale, with capitalized interest. "The purchasers of
the Reserve, most of them belonging to Connecticut, but some
to Massachusetts and New York, were men desirous of trying
their fortunes in Western lands. Oliver Phelps, perhaps the
greatest land-speculator of the time, was at their head.
September 5, 1795, they adopted articles of agreement and
association, constituting themselves the Connecticut Land
Company. The company was never incorporated, but was what is
called to-day a 'syndicate.'" In the spring of 1796 the
company sent out a party of surveyors, in charge of its agent,
General Moses Cleaveland, who reached "the mouth of the
Cuyahoga River, July 22d, from which day there have always
been white men on the site of the city that takes its name
from him." In 1830 the spelling of the name of the infant city
was changed from Cleaveland to Cleveland by the printer of its
first newspaper, who found that the superfluous "a" made a
heading too long for his form, and therefore dropped it out.

_B. A. Hinsdale,
The Old Northwest,
chapter 19, with foot-notes._

ALSO IN:
_C. Whittlesey,
Early History of Cleveland,
page 145, and after._

_H. Rice,
Pioneers of the Western Reserve,
chapters 6-7._

_R. King,
Ohio,
chapters 7-8._

OHIO: (Valley): A. D. 1787.
The Ordinance for the government of the Northwest Territory.
Perpetual exclusion of Slavery.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1787.

OHIO: (Valley): A. D. 1788.
The founding of Cincinnati.

See CINCINNATI: A. D. 1788.

OHIO: (Valley): A. D. 1790-1795.
Indian war.
Disastrous expeditions of Harmar and St. Clair,
and Wayne's decisive victory.
The Greenville Treaty.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1790-1795.

OHIO: (Territory and State): A. D. 1800-1802.
Organized as a separate Territory
and admitted to the Union as a State.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1788-1802.

OHIO: A. D. 1812-1813.
Harrison's campaign for the recovery of Detroit.
Winchester's defeat.
Perry's naval victory.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1812-1813.

OHIO: A. D. 1835.
Settlement of Boundary dispute with Michigan.

See MICHIGAN: A. D. 1836.

OHIO: A. D. 1863.
John Morgan's Rebel Raid.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (JULY: KENTUCKY).

----------OHIO: End--------

OHOD, Battle of.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST; A. D. 609-632.

OJIBWAS, OR CHIPPEWAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: OJIBWAS;
also, ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

OKLAHOMA, The opening of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1889-1890.

OL., OR OLYMP.

See OLYMPIADS.

OLAF II.,
King of Denmark, A. D. 1086-1095.

Olaf III., King of Denmark, 1376-

{2398}

1387; and VII. of Norway, 1380-1387.

Olaf III. (Tryggveson), King of Norway, 995-1000.

Olaf IV. (called The Saint), King of Norway, 1000-1030.

Olaf V., King of Norway, 1069-1093.

Olaf VI., King of Norway, 1103-1116.

OLBIA.

See BORYSTHENES.

OLD CATHOLIC MOVEMENT, The.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1869-1870.

OLD COLONY, The.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1623-1629.

OLD DOMINION, The.

See VIRGINIA: A. D. 1650-1660.

OLD IRONSIDES.

This name was popularly given to the "Constitution," the most
famous of the American frigates in the War of 1812-14 with
Great Britain.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1812-1813; and 1814.

OLD LEAGUE OF HIGH GERMANY, The.

See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1332-1460.

OLD MAN OF THE MOUNTAIN, The.

See ASSASSINS.

OLD POINT COMFORT: Origin of its Name.

See VIRGINIA: A. D. 1606-1607.

----------OLD SARUM: Start--------

OLD SARUM:
Origin.

See SORBIODUNUM.

OLD SARUM:
A Rotten Borough.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1830.

----------OLD SARUM: End--------

OLD SOUTH CHURCH, The founding of the.

See BOSTON: A. D. 1657-1669.

OLD STYLE.

See CALENDAR, GREGORIAN.

OLDENBURG: The duchy annexed to France by Napoleon.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1810 (FEBRUARY-DECEMBER).

OLERON, The Laws of.

"The famous maritime laws of Oleron (which is an island
adjacent to the coast of France) are usually ascribed to
Richard I, though none of the many writers, who have had
occasion to mention them, have been able to find any
contemporary authority, or even any antient satisfactory
warrant for affixing his name to them. They consist of
forty-seven short regulations for average, salvage, wreck, &c.
copied from the antient Rhodian maritime laws, or perhaps more
immediately from those of Barcelona."

_D. Macpherson,
Annals of Commerce,
volume 1, page 358._

OLIGARCHY.

See ARISTOCRACY.

OLISIPO.

The ancient name of Lisbon.

See PORTUGAL: EARLY HISTORY.

OLIVA, Treaty of (1660).

See BRANDENBURG: A. D. 1640-1688;
and SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1644-1697.

OLIVETANS, The.

"The Order of Olivetans, or Brethren of St. Mary of Mount
Olivet, … was founded in 1313, by John Tolomei of Siena, a
distinguished professor of philosophy in his native city, in
gratitude for the miraculous restoration of his sight. In
company with a few companions, he established himself in a
solitary olive-orchard, near Siena, obtained the approbation
of John XXII. for his congregation, and, at the command of the
latter, adopted the Rule of St. Benedict."

_J. Alzog,
Manual of Universal Church History,
volume 3, page 149._

OLLAMHS.

The Bards (see FILI) of the ancient Irish.

OLMUTZ, Abortive siege of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1758.

OLNEY, Treaty of.

A treaty between Edmund Ironsides and Canute, or Cnut,
dividing the English kingdom between them, A. D. 1016. The
conference was held on an island in the Severn, called Olney.

OLPÆ, Battle of.

A victory won, in the Peloponnesian War (B. C. 426-5) by the
Acarnanians and Messenians, under the Athenian general
Demosthenes, over the Peloponnesians and Ambraciotes, on the
shore of the Ambracian gulf.

_E. Curtius,
History of Greece,
book 4, chapter 2._

OLUSTEE, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY: FLORIDA).

OLYBRIUS, Roman Emperor (Western), A. D. 472.

OLYMPIA, Battle of (B. C. 365).

See GREECE: B. C. 371-362.

OLYMPIADS, The Era of the.