Chapter CCCLXVII: Section 16: ) which reserves to the Empire the regulation of the (2)

"In the south of France, more particularly, peace, riches, and
a court life, had introduced, amongst the nobility, an extreme
laxity of manners. Gallantry seems to have been the sole
object of their existence. The ladies, who only appeared in
society after marriage, were proud of the celebrity which
their lovers conferred on their charms. They were delighted
with becoming the objects of the songs of their Troubadour;
nor were they offended at the poems composed in their praise,
in which gallantry was often mingled with licentiousness. They
even themselves professed the Gay Science, 'el Gai Saber,' for
thus poetry was called; and, in their turn, they expressed
their feelings in tender and impassioned verses. They
instituted Courts of Love, where questions of gallantry were
gravely debated and decided by their suffrages. They gave, in
short, to the whole south of France the character of a
carnival, affording a singular contrast to the ideas of
reserve, virtue, and modesty, which we usually attribute to
those good old times."

_J. C. L. S. de Sismondi,
Literature of the South of Europe,
chapter 3 (volume 1)._

ALSO IN:
_C. C. Fauriel,
History of Provençal Poetry._

See, also, TROUBADOURS.

PROVENCE: A. D. 1209-1242.
The Albigensian Crusades.

See ALBIGENSES.

PROVENCE: A. D. 1246.
The count becomes founder of the Third House of Anjou.

See ANJOU: A. D. 1206-1442.

PROVENCE: A. D. 1348.
Sale and transfer of Avignon to the Pope.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1294-1348.

PROVENCE: A. D. 1536-1546.
Invasion by Charles V.
Defensive wasting of the country.
Massacre of Waldenses.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1532-1547.

PROVENCE: 16th Century.
Strength of Protestantism.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1559-1561.

----------PROVENCE: End--------

PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND:
The Plantation and the City.

See RHODE ISLAND.

PROVISIONS OF OXFORD AND WESTMINSTER.

See OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF.

PROVISORS, Statute of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1306-1393.

PROXENI.

In ancient Sparta, "the so-called Proxeni, whose number was
fluctuating, served as the subordinates of the kings in their
diplomatic communication with foreign States."

_G. Schömann,
Antiquity of Greece: The State,
part 3, chapter 1, section 9._

PRUSA: A. D. 1326.
The first capital of the Ottomans.

See TURKS (OTTOMANS): A. D. 1240-1326.

----------PRUSSIA: Start--------

PRUSSIA:
The original country and its name.

"Five–hundred miles, and more, to the east of Brandenburg,
lies a Country then [10th century] as now called Preussen
(Prussia Proper), inhabited by Heathens, where also endeavours
at conversion are going on, though without success hitherto. …
Part of the great plain or flat which stretches, sloping
insensibly, continuously, in vast expanse, from the Silesian
Mountains to the amber–regions of the Baltic; Preussen is the
seaward, more alluvial part of this,—extending west and east,
on both sides of the Weichsel (Vistula), from the regions of
the Oder river to the main stream of the Memel.
'Bordering-on-Russia' its name signifies: Bor-Russia,
B'russia, Prussia; or—some say it was only on a certain
inconsiderable river in those parts, river Reussen, that it
'bordered,' and not on the great Country, or any part of it,
which now in our days is conspicuously its next neighbour. Who
knows?—In Henry the Fowler's time, and long afterwards,
Preussen was a vehemently Heathen country; the natives a
Miscellany of rough Serbic Wends, Letts, Swedish Goths, or
Dryasdust knows not what;—very probably a sprinkling of
Swedish Goths, from old time, chiefly along the coasts.
Dryasdust knows only that these Preussen were a strong-boned,
iracund herdsman-and-fisher people; highly averse to be
interfered with, in their religion especially. Famous
otherwise, through all the centuries, for the amber they had
been used to fish, and sell in foreign parts. … Their
knowledge of Christianity was trifling; their aversion to
knowing anything of it was great."

_T. Carlyle,
Frederick the Great,
book 2, chapter 2._

PRUSSIA: 13th Century.
Conquered and Christianized by the Teutonic Knights.

The first Christian missionary who ventured among the savage
heathen of Prussia Proper was Adalbert, bishop of Prague, who
fell a martyr to his zeal in 997. For two centuries after that
tragedy they were little disturbed in their paganism; but
early in the 13th century a Pomeranian monk named Christian
succeeded in establishing among them many promising churches.
The heathen party in the country, however, was enraged by the
progress of the Christians and rose furiously against them,
putting numerous converts to the sword. "Other agencies were
now invoked by Bishop Christian, and the 'Order of Knights
Brethren of Dobrin,' formed on the model of that which we have
already encountered in Livonia, was bidden to coerce the
people into the reception of Christianity. But they failed to
achieve the task assigned them, and then it was that the
famous 'Order of Teutonic Knights,' united with the 'Brethren
of the Sword' in Livonia, concentrated their energies on this
European crusade. Originally instituted for the purpose of
succouring German pilgrims in the Holy Land, the 'Order of
Teutonic Knights,' now that the old crusades had become
unpopular, enrolled numbers of eager adventurers determined to
expel the last remains of heathenism from the face of Europe.
After the union of the two Orders had been duly solemnized at
Rome, in the presence of the Pope, in the year A. D. 1238,
they entered the Prussian territory, and for a space of nearly
fifty years continued a series of remorseless wars against the
wretched inhabitants.
{2613}
Slowly but surely they made their way into the very heart of
the country, and secured their conquests by erecting castles,
under the shadow of which rose the towns of Culm, Thorn,
Marienwerder, and Elbing, which they peopled with German
colonists. The authority of the Order knew scarcely any
bounds. Themselves the faithful vassals of the Pope, they
exacted the same implicit obedience, alike from the German
immigrant, or colonist, and the converted Prussians. … In A.
D. 1243 the conquered lands were divided by the Pope into
three bishoprics, Culm, Pomerania, and Ermeland, each of which
was again divided into three parts, one being subject to the
bishop, and the other two to the brethren of the Order."

_G. F. Maclear,
Apostles of Mediæval Europe,
chapter 16._

"None of the Orders rose so high as the Teutonic in favour
with mankind. It had by degrees landed possessions far and
wide over Germany and beyond, … and was thought to deserve
favour from above. Valiant servants, these; to whom Heaven had
vouchsafed great labours and unspeakable blessings. In some
fifty or fifty-three years they had got Prussian Heathenism
brought to the ground; and they endeavoured to tie it well
down there by bargain and arrangement. But it would not yet
lie quiet, nor for a century to come; being still secretly
Heathen; revolting, conspiring ever again, ever on weaker
terms, till the Satanic element had burnt itself out, and
conversion and composure could ensue."

_T. Carlyle,
History of Frederick the Great,
book 2, chapter 6 (volume l)._

See, also, LIVONIA: 12-13TH CENTURIES.

PRUSSIA: A. D. 1466-1618.
Conquest and annexation to the Polish crown.
Surrender by the Teutonic Knights.
Erection into a duchy.
Union with the electorate of Brandenburg.

See POLAND: A. D. 1333-1572;
and BRANDENBURG: A. D. 1417-1640.

PRUSSIA: A. D. 1626-1629.
Conquests of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden
in his war with Poland.

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1611-1629.

PRUSSIA: A. D. 1656-1688.
Complete sovereignty of the duchy acquired by
the Great Elector of Brandenburg.
His curbing of the nobles.

See BRANDENBURG: A. D. 1640-1688.

PRUSSIA: A. D. 1700.
The Dukedom erected into a Kingdom.

In the last year of the 17th century, Europe was on the verge
of the great War of the Spanish Succession. The Emperor was
making ready to contest the will by which Charles II. of Spain
had bequeathed his crown to Philip, Duke of Anjou, grandson of
Louis XIV. of France.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1698-1700.

"He did not doubt that he would speedily involve England,
Holland, and the Germanic diet in his quarrel. Already several
German princes were pledged to him; he had gained the Duke of
Hanover by an elector's hat, and a more powerful prince, the
Elector of Brandenburg, by a royal crown. By a treaty of
November 16, 1700, the Emperor had consented to the erection
of ducal Prussia into a kingdom, on condition that the new
King should furnish him an aid of 10,000 soldiers. The Elector
Frederick III. apprised his courtiers of this important news
at the close of a repast, by drinking 'to the health of
Frederick I. King of Prussia'; then caused himself to be
proclaimed King at Konigsberg, January 15, 1701."

_H. Martin,
History of France: Age of Louis XIV.
(translated by M. L. Booth),
volume 2, chapter 5._

PRUSSIA: A. D. 1713.
Neufchatel and Spanish Guelderland acquired.
Orange relinquished.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

PRUSSIA: A. D. 1717-1809.
Abolition of serfdom.

See SLAVERY, MEDIÆVAL: GERMANY.

PRUSSIA: A. D. 1720.
Acquisition of territory from Sweden, including Stettin.

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1719-1721.

PRUSSIA: A. D. 1720-1794.
Reign of Frederick William I., and after.

The later history of Prussia, under Frederick William,
Frederick the Great, and their successors, will be found
included in that of GERMANY.

----------PRUSSIA: End--------

PRUSSIAN LANGUAGE, The Old.

"The Old Prussian, a member of the Lithuanic family of
languages, was spoken here as late as the 16th century,
remains of which, in the shape of a catechism, are extant.
This is the language of the ancient Æstyi, or 'Men of the
East,' which Tacitus says was akin to the British, an error
arising from the similarity of name, since a Slavonian … would
call the two languages by names so like as 'Prytskaia' and
'Brytskaia,' and a German … by names so like as 'Pryttisc' and
'Bryttisc.' The Guttones, too, of Pliny, whose locality is
fixed from the fact of their having been collectors of the
amber of East Prussia and Courland, were of the same stock."

_R. G. Latham,
The Ethnology of Europe,
chapter 8._

PRUTH, The Treaty of the (1711).

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1707-1718.

PRYDYN.

See SCOTLAND: THE PICTS AND SCOTS.

PRYTANES. PRYTANEUM.

The Council of Four Hundred, said to have been instituted at
Athens by Solon, "was divided into sections, which, under the
venerable name of prytanes, succeeded each other throughout
the year as the representatives of the whole body. Each
section during its term assembled daily in their session
house, the prytaneum, to consult on the state of affairs, to
receive intelligence, information, and suggestions, and
instantly to take such measures as the public interest
rendered it necessary to adopt without delay. … According to
the theory of Solon's constitution, the assembly of the people
was little more than the organ of the council, as it could
only act upon the propositions laid before it by the latter."

_C. Thirlwall,
History of Greece,
chapter 11._

"Clisthenes … enlarged the number of the senate, 50 being now
elected by lot from each tribe, so as to make in all 500. Each
of these companies of 50 acted as presidents of both the
senate and the assemblies, for a tenth part of the year, under
the name of Prytanes: and each of these tenth parts, of 35 or
36 days, so as to complete a lunar year, was called a
Prytany."

_G. F. Schömann,
Dissertation on the Assemblies of the Athenians,
page 14._

See, also, ATHENS: B. C. 594.

PRYTANIS.

A title frequently recurring among the Greeks was that of
Prytanis, which signified prince, or supreme ruler. "Even
Hiero, the king or tyrant of Syracuse, is addressed by Pindar
as Prytanis. At Corinth, after the abolition of the monarchy,
a Prytanis, taken from the ancient house of the Bacchiadæ, was
annually appointed as supreme magistrate

See CORINTH: B. C. 745-725.

… The same title was borne by the supreme magistrate in the
Corinthian colony of Corcyra. … In Rhodes we find in the time
of Polybius a Prytany lasting for six months."

_G. Schömann,
Antiquity of Greece: The State,
part 2, chapter 5._

{2614}

PSALTER OF CASHEL. PSALTER OF TARA.

See TARA, HILL AND FEIS OF.

PSEPHISM.

A decree, or enactment, in ancient Athens.

PSEUDO-ISIDORIAN DECRETALS, The.

See PAPACY: A. D. 829-847.

PTOLEMAIS, Syria.

See ACRE.

PTOLEMIES, The.

See EGYPT: B. C. 323-30.

PTOLEMY KERAUNOS, The intrigues and death of.

See MACEDONIA: B. C. 297-280;
and GAULS: B. C. 280-279.

PTOLEMY SOTER, and the Wars of the Diadochi.

See MACEDONIA: B. C. 323-316, to 297-280;
and EGYPT: B. C. 323-30.

PTOLEMY'S CANON.

An important chronological list of Chaldean, Persian,
Macedonian and Egyptian kings, compiled or continued by
Claudius Ptolemæus, an Alexandrian mathematician and
astronomer in the reign of the Second Antoninus.

_W. Hales,
New Analysis of Chronology,
volume I, book 1._

PUANS, OR WINNEBAGOES, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY.

PUBLIC MEALS.

See SYSSITIA.

PUBLIC PEACE, The.

See LANDFRIEDE.

PUBLIC WEAL, League of the.

See FRANCE; A. D. 1461-1468; and 1453-1461.

PUBLICANI.

The farmers of the taxes, among the Romans.

See VECTIGAL.

PUBLICIANI, The.

See ALBIGENSES;
and PAULICIANS.

PUEBLA: Capture by the French (1862).

See MEXICO: A. D. 1861-1867.

PUBLILIAN LAW OF VOLERO, The.

See ROME: B. C. 472-471.

PUBLILIAN LAWS, The.

See ROME: B. C. 340.

PUEBLOS.

The Spanish word pueblo, meaning town, village, or the
inhabitants thereof, has acquired a special signification as
applied, first, to the sedentary or village Indians of New
Mexico and Arizona, and then to the singular villages of
communal houses which they inhabit.

_D. G. Brinton,
The American Race,
page 113._

"The purely civic colonies of California were called pueblos
to distinguish them from missions or presidios. The term
pueblo, in its most extended meaning, may embrace towns of
every description, from a hamlet to a city. … However, in its
special significance, a pueblo means a corporate town."

_F. W. Blackmar,
Spanish Institutions of the Southwest,
chapter 8._

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PUEBLOS.

PUELTS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAMPAS TRIBES.

PUERTO CAVELLO, Spanish capitulation at (1823).

See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1819-1830.

PUJUNAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PUJUNAN FAMILY.

PULASKI, Fort: A. D. 1861.
Threatened by the Union forces.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1861 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER: SOUTH CAROLINA—GEORGIA).

PULASKI, Fort: A. D. 1862 (February-April).
Siege and capture.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (FEBRUARY-APRIL: GEORGIA-FLORIDA).

PULLANI, The.

The descendants of the first Crusaders who remained in the
East and married Asiatic women are represented as having been
a very despicable half-breed race. They were called the
Pullani. Prof. Palmer suggests a derivation of the name from
"fulani," anybodies. Mr. Keightley, on the contrary, states
that before the crusading colonists overcame their prejudice
against Oriental wives, women were brought to them from
Apulia, in Italy. Whence the name Pullani, applied
indiscriminately to an the progeny of the Latin settlers.

_W. Besant and E. H. Palmer,
Jerusalem, chapter 7._

ALSO IN:
_T. Keightley,
The Crusaders,
chapter 2._

PULTNEY ESTATE, The.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1786-1799.

PULTOWA, Battle of (1709).

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1707-1718.

PULTUSK,
Battle of (1703).

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1701-1707.

Battle of (1806).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1806-1807.

PUMBADITHA, The. School of.

See JEWS: 7TH CENTURY.

PUNCAS, OR PONCAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY,
and PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.

PUNIC.

The adjective Punicus, derived from the name of the
Phœnicians, was used by the Romans in a sense which commonly
signified "Carthaginian,"—the Carthaginians being of Phœnician
origin. Hence "Punic Wars," "Punic faith," etc., the phrase
"Punic faith" being an imputation of faithlessness and
treachery.

----------PUNIC WARS: Start--------

PUNIC WARS,
The First.

When Pyrrhus quitted Italy he is said to have exclaimed, "How
fair a battle–field are we leaving to the Romans and
Carthaginians." He may easily have had sagacity to foresee the
deadly struggle which Rome and Carthage would soon be engaged
in, and he might as easily have predicted, too, that the
beginning of it would be in Sicily. Rome had just settled her
supremacy in the whole Italian peninsula; she was sure to
covet next the rich island that lies so near to it. In fact,
there was bred quickly in the Roman mind such an eagerness to
cross the narrow strait that it waited only for the slenderest
excuse. A poor pretext was found in the year 264 B. C. and it
was so despicably poor that the proud Roman senators turned
over to the popular assembly of the Comitia the responsibility
of accepting it. There came to Rome from Messene, in Sicily—or
Messana, as the Romans called the city—an appeal. It did not
come from the citizens of Messene, but from a band of
freebooters who had got possession of the town. These were
mercenaries from Campania (lately made Roman territory by the
Samnite conquest) who had been in the pay of Agathocles of
Syracuse. Disbanded on that tyrant's death, they had
treacherously seized Messene, slain most of the male
inhabitants, taken to themselves the women, and settled down
to a career of piracy and robbery, assuming the name of
Mamertinl,—children of Mamers, or Mars. Of course, all Sicily,
both Greek and Carthaginian, was roused against them by the
outrages they committed. Being hard pressed, the Mamertines
invoked, as Italians, the protection of Rome; although one
party among them appears to have preferred an arrangement of
terms with the Carthaginians.
{2615}
The Roman Senate, being ashamed to extend a friendly hand to
the Mamertine cutthroats, but not having virtue enough to
decline an opportunity for fresh conquests, referred the
question to the people at large. The popular vote sent an army
into Sicily, and Messene, then besieged by Hiero of Syracuse
on one side and by a Carthaginian army on the other, was
relieved of both. The Romans thereon proceeded, in two
aggressive campaigns, against Syracusans and Carthaginians
alike, until Hiero bought peace with them, at a heavy cost,
and became their half-subject ally for the remainder of his
life. The war with the Carthaginians was but just commenced.
Its first stunning blow was struck at Agrigentum, the splendid
city of Phalaris, which the Carthaginians had destroyed, B. C.
405, which Timoleon had rebuilt, and which one of the
Hannibals ("son of Gisco") now seized upon for his stronghold.
In a great battle fought under the walls of Agrigentum (B. C.
262) Hannibal lost the city and all but a small remnant of his
army. But the successes of the Romans on land were worth
little to them while the Carthaginians commanded the sea.
Hence they resolved to create a fleet, and are said to have
built a hundred ships of the quinquereme order and twenty
triremes within sixty days, while rowers for them were trained
by all imitative exercise on land. The first squadron of this
improvised navy was trapped at Lipara and lost; the remainder
was successful in its first encounter with the enemy. But
where naval warfare depended on good seamanship the Romans
were no match for the Carthaginians. They contrived therefore
a machine for their ships, called the Corvus, or raven, by
which, running straight on the opposing vessel, they were able
to grasp it by the throat, so to speak, and force fighting at
close quarters. That accomplished, they were tolerably sure of
victory. With their corvus they half annihilated the
Carthaginian fleet in a great sea-fight at Mylæ, B. C. 260,
and got so much mastery of the sea that they were able to
attack their Punic foes even in the island of Sardinia, but
without much result. In 257 B. C. another naval battle of
doubtful issue was fought at Tyndaris, and the following year,
in the great battle of Ecnomus, the naval power of the
Carthaginians, for the time being, was utterly crushed. Then
followed the invasion of Carthaginian territory by Regulus,
his complete successes at first, his insolent proposal of hard
terms, and the tremendous defeat which overwhelmed him at Adis
a little later, when he, himself, was taken prisoner. The
miserable remnant of the Roman army which held its ground at
Clypea on the African coast was rescued the next year (B. C.
255) by a new fleet, but only to be destroyed on the voyage
homeward, with 260 ships, in a great storm on the south coast
of Sicily. Then Carthaginians reappeared in Sicily and the war
in that unhappy island was resumed. In 254 B. C. the Romans
took the strong fortified city of Panormus. In 253, having
built and equipped another fleet, they were robbed of it again
by a storm at sea, and the Carthaginians gained ground and
strength in Sicily. In 251 the Roman consul, Cæcilius
Metellus, drove them back from the walls of Panormus and
inflicted on them so discouraging a defeat, that they sent
Regulus, their prisoner, on parole, with an embassy, to
solicit peace at Rome. How Regulus advised his countrymen
against peace, and how he returned to Carthage to meet a cruel
death—the traditional story is familiar to all readers, but
modern criticism throws doubt upon it. In 250 B. C. the Romans
undertook the siege of Lilybæum, which, with the neighboring
port of Drepana, were the only strongholds left to the
Carthaginians. The siege then commenced was one of the most
protracted in history, for when the First Punic War ended,
nine years later, Lilybæum was still resisting, and the Romans
only acquired it with all the rest of Sicily, under the terms
of the treaty of peace. Meantime the Carthaginians won a
bloody naval victory at Drepana (B. C. 249) over the Roman
fleet, and the latter, in the same year, had a third fleet
destroyed on the coast by relentless storms. In the year 247
B. C. the Carthaginian command in Sicily was given to the
great Hamilcar, surnamed Barca, who was the father of a yet
greater man, the Hannibal who afterwards brought Rome very
near to destruction. Hamilcar Barca, having only a few
mutinous mercenary soldiers at his command, and almost
unsupported by the authorities at Carthage, established
himself, first, on the rocky height of Mount Ercte, or Hercte,
near Panormus, and afterwards on Mount Eryx, and harassed the
Romans for six years. The end came at last as the consequence
of a decisive naval victory near the Ægatian Isles, which the
Romans achieved, with a newly built fleet, in March B. C. 241.
The Carthaginians, discouraged, proposed peace, and purchased
it by evacuating Sicily and paying a heavy war indemnity. Thus
Rome acquired Sicily, but the wealth and civilization of the
great island had been ruined beyond recovery.

_R. B. Smith,
Carthage and the Carthaginians,
chapters 4-7._

ALSO IN:
_W. Ihne,
History of Rome,
book 4, chapter 3._

_Polybius,
Histories,
book l._

_A. J. Church,
The Story of Carthage,
part 4, chapters 1-3._

See, also, ROME: B. C. 264-241.

PUNIC WARS:
The Second.

Between the First Punic War and the Second there was an
interval of twenty-three years. Carthage, meantime, had been
brought very near to destruction by the Revolt of the
Mercenaries and had been saved by the capable energy of
Hamilcar Barca.

See CARTHAGE: B. C. 241-238.

Then the selfish faction which hated Hamilcar had regained
power in the Punic capital, and the Barcine patriot could do
no more than obtain command of an army which he led, on his
own responsibility, into Spain, B. C. 237. The Carthaginians
had inherited from the Phœnicians a considerable commerce with
Spain, but do not seem to have organized a control of the
country until Hamilcar took the task in hand. Partly by
pacific influences and partly by force, he established a rule,
rather personal than Carthaginian, which extended over nearly
all southern Spain. With the wealth that he drew from its gold
and silver mines he maintained his army and bought or bribed
at Carthage the independence he needed for the carrying out of
his plans. He had aimed from the first, no doubt, at
organizing resources with which to make war on Rome. Hamilcar
was killed in battle, B. C. 228, and his son-in-law,
Hasdrubal, who succeeded him, lived only seven years more.
Then Hannibal, the son of Hamilcar, in his twenty–sixth year,
was chosen to the command in Spain.
{2616}
He waited two years, for the settling of his authority and for
making all preparations complete, and then he threw down a
challenge to the Romans for the war which he had sworn to his
father that he would make the one purpose of his life. The
provocation of war was the taking of the city of Saguntum, a
Greek colony on the Spanish coast, which the Romans had formed
an alliance with. It was taken by Hannibal after a siege of
eight months and after most of the inhabitants had destroyed
themselves, with their wealth. When Rome declared war it was
with the expectation, no doubt, that Spain and Africa would be
the battle grounds. But Hannibal did not wait for her attack.
He led his Spanish army straight to Italy, in the early summer
of B. C. 218, skirting the Pyrenees and crossing the Alps. The
story of his passage of the Alps is familiar to every reader.
The difficulties he encountered were so terrible and the
losses sustained so great that Hannibal descended into Italy
with only 20,000 foot and 6,000 horse, out of 50,000 of the
one and 9,000 of the other which he had led through Gaul. He
received some reinforcement and co-operation from the
Cisalpine Gauls, but their strength had been broken by recent
wars with Rome and they were not efficient allies. In the
first encounter of the Romans with the dread invader, on the
Ticinus, they were beaten, but not seriously. In the next, on
the Trebia, where Scipio, the consul, made a determined stand,
they sustained an overwhelming defeat. This ended the campaign
of B. C. 218. Hannibal wintered in Cisalpine Gaul and passed
the Apennines the following spring into Etruria, stealing a
march on the Roman army, under the popular consul Flaminius,
which was watching to intercept him. The latter pursued and
was caught in ambush at Lake Trasimene, where Flaminius and
15,000 of his men were slain, while most of the survivors of
the fatal field were taken prisoners and made slaves. Rome
then seemed open to the Carthaginian, but he knew, without
doubt, that his force was not strong enough for the besieging
of the city, and he made no attempt. What he aimed at was the
isolating of Rome and the arraying of Italy against her, in a
great and powerfully handled combination of the jealousies and
animosities which he knew to exist. He led his troops
northward again, after the victory of Lake Trasimene, across
the mountains to the Adriatic coast, and rested them during
the summer. When cooler weather came he moved southward along
the coast into Apulia. The Romans meantime had chosen a
Dictator, Q. Fabius Maximus, a cautious man, whose plan of
campaign was to watch and harass and wear out the enemy,
without risking a battle. It was a policy which earned for him
the name of "The Cunctator," or Lingerer. The Roman people
were discontented with it, and next year (B. C. 216) they
elected for one of the consuls a certain Varro who had been
one of the mouth-pieces of their discontent. In opposition to
his colleague, Æmilius Paullus, Varro soon forced a battle
with Hannibal at Cannæ, in Apulia, and brought upon his
countrymen the most awful disaster in war that they ever knew.
Nearly 50,000 Roman citizens were left dead on the field,
including eighty senators, and half the young nobility of the
state. From the spoils of the field Hannibal was said to have
sent three bushels of golden rings to Carthage, stripped from
the fingers of Roman knights. Rome reeled under the blow, and
yet haughtily refused to ransom the 20,000 prisoners in
Hannibal's hands, while she met the discomfited Varro with
proud thanks, because "he had not despaired of the Republic."
Capua now opened its gates to Hannibal and became the
headquarters of his operations. The people of Southern Italy
declared generally in his favor; but he had reached and
passed, nevertheless, the crowning point of his success. He
received no effective help from Carthage; nor from his brother
in Spain, who was defeated by the elder Scipios, that same
year (B. C. 216) at Ibera, just as he had prepared to lead a
fresh army into Italy. On the other hand, the energies of the
Romans had risen with every disaster. Their Latin subjects
continued faithful to them; but they lost at this time an
important ally in Sicily, by the death of the aged Hiero of
Syracuse, and the Carthaginians succeeded in raising most of
the island against them. The war in Sicily now became for a
time more important than that in Italy, and the consul
Marcellus, the most vigorous of the Roman generals, was sent
to conduct it. His chief object was the taking of Syracuse and
the great city sustained another of the many dreadful sieges
which it was her fate to endure. The siege was prolonged for
two years, and chiefly by the science and the military
inventions of the famous mathematician, Archimides. When the
Romans entered Syracuse at last (B. C. 212) it was to pillage
and slay without restraint, and Archimides was one of the
thousands cut down by their swords. Meantime, in Italy,
Tarentum had been betrayed to Hannibal, but the Romans still
held the citadel of the town. They had gained so much strength
in the field that they were now able to lay siege to Capua and
Hannibal was powerless to relieve it. He attempted a diversion
by marching on Rome, but the threat proved idle and Capua was
left to its fate. The city surrendered soon after (B. C. 211)
and the merciless conquerors only spared it for a new
population. For three or four years after this the war in
Italy was one of minor successes and reverses on both sides,
but Hannibal lost steadily in prestige and strength. In Spain,
Hannibal's brother, Hasdrubal, had opportunely beaten and
slain (B. C. 212) both the elder Scipios; but another and
greater Scipio, P. Cornelius, son of Publius, had taken the
field and was sweeping the Carthaginians from the peninsula.
Yet, despite Scipio's capture of New Carthage and his
victories, at Bæcula, and elsewhere, Hasdrubal contrived, in
some unexplained way, in the year 208, B. C., to cross the
Pyrenees into Gaul and to recruit reinforcements there for a
movement on Italy. The next spring he passed the Alps and
brought his army safely into Cisalpine Gaul; but his
dispatches to Hannibal fell into the hands of the Romans and
revealed his plans. The swift energy of one of the consuls, C.
Claudius Nero, brought about a marvellous concentration of
Roman forces to meet him, and he and his army perished
together in an awful battle fought on the banks of the
Metaurus, in Umbria. The last hopes of Hannibal perished with
them; but he held his ground in the extreme south of Italy and
no Roman general dared try to dislodge him. When Scipio
returned next year (B. C. 206) and reported the complete
conquest of Spain, he was chosen consul with the understanding
that he would carry the war into Africa, though the senate
stood half opposed.
{2617}
He did so in the early months of the year 204 B. C. crossing
from Sicily with a comparatively small armament and laying
siege to Utica. That year he accomplished nothing, but during
the next winter he struck a terrible blow, surprising and
burning the camps of the Carthaginians and their Numidian
allies and slaughtering 40,000 of their number. This success
was soon followed by another, on the Great Plains, which lie
70 or 80 miles to the southwest of Carthage. The Numidian
king, Syphax, was now driven from his throne and the kingdom
delivered over to an outlawed prince, Massinissa, who became,
thenceforth, the most useful and unscrupulous of allies to the
Romans. Now pushed to despair, the Carthaginians summoned
Hannibal to their rescue. He abandoned Italy at the call and
returned to see his own land for the first time since as a boy
he left it with his father. But even his genius could not save
Carthage with the means at his command. The long war was ended
in October of the year 202 B. C. by the battle which is called
the battle of Zama, though it was fought at some distance
westward of that place. The Carthaginian army was routed
utterly, and Hannibal himself persuaded his countrymen to
accept a peace which stripped them of their ships and their
trade, their possessions in Spain and all the islands, and
their power over the Numidian states, besides wringing from
them a war indemnity of many millions. On those hard terms,
Carthage was suffered to exist a few years longer.

_R. B. Smith,
Carthage and the Carthaginians._

ALSO IN:
_T. Arnold,
History of Rome,
chapters 43-47._

_H. G. Liddell,
History of Rome,
chapters 31-34._

_T. A. Dodge,
Hannibal,
chapters 11-39._

See, also, ROME: B. C. 218-211, to 211-202.

PUNIC WARS:
The Third.

See CARTHAGE: B. C. 146;
and ROME: B. C. 151-146.

----------PUNIC WARS: End--------

PUNJAB, PUNJAUB, PANJAB, The.

"Everything has a meaning in India, and the Panjab is only
another name for the Five Rivers which make the historic
Indus. They rise far back among the western Himalayas, bring
down their waters from glaciers twenty-five miles in length,
and peaks 26,000 feet high, and hurl their mighty torrent into
one great current, which is thrown at last into the Arabian
Sea. It is a fertile region, not less so than the Valley of
the Ganges. This Panjab is the open door, the only one by
which the European of earlier days was able to descend upon
the plains of India for conquest and a new home. … In the
Panjab every foot of the land is a romance. No one knows how
many armies have shivered in the winds of the hills of
Afghanistan, and then pounced down through the Khaibar Pass
into India, and overspread the country, until the people could
rise and destroy the stranger within the gates. Whenever a
European invader of Asia has reached well into the continent,
his dream has always been India. That country has ever been,
and still is, the pearl of all the Orient. Its perfect sky in
winter, its plenteous rains in summer, its immense rivers, its
boundless stores of wealth, an its enduring industries, which
know no change, have made it the dream of every great
conqueror."

_J. F. Hurst,
Indika,
chapter 75._

"In form, the country is a great triangle, its base resting on
the Himalayan chain and Cashmere, and its apex directed due
south–west. … The five streams which confer its name, counting
them from north to south, are the Upper Indus, the Jhelum, the
Chenab, the Ravee and the Sutlej, the Indus and Sutlej
constituting respectively the western and eastern boundary. …
The four divisions enclosed by the five convergent streams are
called doabs—lands of two waters. … Besides the territory thus
delineated, the Punjab of the Sikhs included Cashmere, the
Jummoo territory to Spiti and Tibet, the trans-Indus frontier
and the Hazara highlands in the west; and to the east the
Jullundhur Doab with Kangra and Noorpoor. These last, with the
frontier, are better known as the cis- and trans-Sutlaj
states."

_E. Arnold,
The Marquis of Dalhousie's Administration of British India,
chapter 2 (volume 1)._

The Sikhs established their supremacy in the Punjab in the
18th century, and became a formidable power, under the famous
Runjet Singh, in the early part of the 19th century. (The
English conquest of the Sikhs and annexation of the Punjab to
British India took place in 1849.

See INDIA: A. D. 1845-1849,
and SIKHS

PUNT, Land of.

"Under the name of Punt, the old inhabitants of Kemi [ancient
Egypt] meant a distant land, washed by the great ocean, full
of valleys and hills, abounding in ebony and other rich woods,
in incense, balsam, precious metals, and costly stones; rich
also in beasts, as cameleopards, hunting leopards, panthers,
dog-headed apes, and long-tailed monkeys. … Such was the Ophir
of the Egyptians, without doubt the present coast of the
Somauli land in sight of Arabia, but separated from it by the
sea. According to an old obscure tradition, the land of Punt
was the original seat of the gods. From Punt the holy ones had
travelled to the Nile valley, at their head Amon, Horus,
Hathor."

_H. Brugsch,
History of Egypt under the Pharaohs,
chapter 8._

PURCHASE IN THE ARMY, Abolition of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1871.

----------PURITANS: Start--------

PURITANS:
The movement taking form.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1559-1566.

PURITANS:
First application of the Name.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1564-1565 (?).

PURITANS:
In distinction from the Independents or Separatists.

"When, in 1603, James I. became king of England, he found his
Protestant subjects divided into three classes,—Conformists,
or High Ritualists; Nonconformists, or Broad-Church Puritans;
and Separatists, popularly called Brownists [and subsequently
called Independents]. The Conformists and the Puritans both
adhered to the Church of England, and were struggling for its
control. … The Puritans objected to some of the ceremonies of
the Church, such as the ring in marriage, the sign of the
cross in baptism, the promises of god-parents, the showy
vestments, bowing in the creed, receiving evil-livers to the
communion, repetitions, and to kneeling at communion as if
still adoring the Host, instead of assuming an ordinary
attitude as did the apostles at the Last Supper. The majority
of the lower clergy and of the middle classes are said to have
favored Puritanism. … Dr. Neal says that the Puritan body took
form in 1564, and dissolved in 1644.
{2618}
During that term of eighty years the Puritans were ever 'in
and of the Church of England'; as Dr. Prince says in his
Annals (1736), those who left the Episcopal Church 'lost the
name of Puritans and received that of the Separatists.' … The
Separatists, unlike the Puritans, had no connection with the
National Church, and the more rigid of them even denied that
Church to be scriptural, or its ministrations to be valid. …
The Pilgrim Fathers, the founders of our Plymouth, the pioneer
colony of New England, were not Puritans. They never were
called by that name, either by themselves or their
contemporaries. They were Separatists, slightingly called
Brownists, and in time became known as Independents or
Congregationalists. As Separatists they were oppressed and
maligned by the Puritans. They did not restrict voting or
office-holding to their church-members. They heartily welcomed
to their little State all men of other sects, or of no sects,
who adhered to the essentials of Christianity and were ready
to conform to the local laws and customs. … Though their faith
was positive and strong, they laid down no formal creed."

_J. A. Goodwin,
The Pilgrim Republic,
chapters 2 and 1._

"The reader of this history must have remarked that 'Puritan'
and 'Separatist' were by no means convertible terms; that, in
point of fact, they very often indicated hostile parties,
pitted against each other in bitter controversies. And the
inquiry may have arisen—How is this? Were not the Separatists
all Puritans? … The term 'Puritan' was originally applied to
all in the church of England who desired further reformation—a
greater conformity of church government and worship to
primitive and apostolic usages. But after awhile the term
became restricted in its application to those who retained
their respect for the church of England, and their connection
with it, notwithstanding its acknowledged corruptions; in
distinction from those who had been brought to abandon both
their respect for that church and their connection with it,
under the conviction that it was hopelessly corrupt, and could
never be reformed. The Separatists, then, were indeed all
Puritans, and of the most thorough and uncompromising kind.
They were the very essence—the oil of Puritanism. But the
Puritans were by no means all Separatists; though they agreed
with them in doctrinal faith, being all thoroughly Calvinistic
in their faith."

_G. Punchard,
History of Congregationalism,
volume 3, appendix, note F._

ALSO IN:
_G. E. Ellis,
The Puritan Age and Rule in the Colony of Massachusetts Bay,
chapter 3._

See INDEPENDENTS OR SEPARATISTS.

_D. Campbell,
The Puritan in Holland, England, and America,
chapter 16 (volume 2)._

PURITANS: A. D. 1604.
Hampton Court Conference with James I.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1604.

PURITANS: A. D. 1629.
Incorporation of the Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1623-1629 THE DORCHESTER COMPANY.

PURITANS: A. D. 1629-1630.
The exodus to Massachusetts Bay.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1623-1629; 1629-1630; and 1630.

PURITANS: A. D. 1631-1636.
The Theocracy of Massachusetts Bay.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1631-1636; and 1636.

PURITANS: A. D. 1638-1640.
At the beginning of the English Civil War.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1638-1640.

----------PURITANS: End--------

PURUARAN, Battle of (1814).

See MEXICO: A. D. 1810-1819.

PURUMANCIANS, The.

See CHILE: A. D. 1450-1724.

PUT-IN-BAY, Naval Battle at.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1812-1813 HARRISON'S NORTHWESTERN CAMPAIGN.

PUTEOLI.

The maritime city of Puteoli, which occupied the site of the
modern town of Pozzuoli, about 7 miles from Naples, became
under the empire the chief emporium of Roman commerce in
Italy. The vicinity of Puteoli and its neighbor Baiæ was one
of the favorite resorts of the Roman nobility for villa
residence. It was at Puteoli that St. Paul landed on his
journey to Rome.

_T. Mommsen,
History of Rome,
book 4, chapter 11._

PUTNAM, Israel, and the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1775 (APRIL-MAY), (MAY-AUGUST);
1776 (AUGUST), (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER).

PYDNA, Battle of (B. C. 168).

See GREECE: B. C. 214-146.

PYLÆ CASPIÆ.

See CASPIAN GATES.

PYLÆ CILICIÆ. See

CILICIAN GATES.

PYLUS, Athenian seizure of.

See GREECE: B. C. 425.

PYRAMID.

"The name 'pyramid'—first invented by the ancients to denote
the tombs of the Egyptian kings, and still used in geometry to
this day—is of Greek origin. The Egyptians themselves denoted
the pyramid—both in the sense of a sepulchre and of a figure
in Solid Geometry—by the word 'abumir;' while, on the other
hand, the word' Pir-am-us' is equivalent to the 'edge of the
pyramid,' namely, the four edges extending from the apex of
the pyramid to each corner of the quadrangular base."

_H. Brugsch
History of Egypt,
chapter 7._

PYRAMIDS, Battle of the.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1798 (MAY-AUGUST).

PYRENEES, Battles of the (1813).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1812-1814.

PYRENEES, Treaty of the.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1659-1661.

PYRRHIC DANCE.

A spirited military dance, performed in armor, which gave much
delight to the Spartans, and is said to have been taught to
children only five years old. It was thought to have been
invented by the Cretans.

_G. Schömann,
Antiquities of Greece: The State,
part 3, chapters 1-2._

PYRRHUS, and his campaigns in Italy and Sicily.

See ROME: B. C. 282-275.

PYTHIAN GAMES.

See DELPHI.

PYTHO, The Sanctuary of.

According to the Greek legend, a monstrous serpent, or dragon,
Pytho, or Python, produced from the mud left by the deluge of
Deucalion, lived in a great cavern of Mount Parnassus until
slain by the god Apollo. The scene of the exploit became the
principal seat of the worship of Apollo, the site of his most
famous temple, the home of the oracle which he inspired. The
temple and its seat were originally called Pytho; the cavern,
from which arose mephitic and intoxicating vapors was called
the Pythium; the priestess who inhaled those vapors and
uttered the oracles which they were supposed to inspire, was
the Pythia; Apollo, himself, was often called Pythius.
Subsequently, town, temple and oracle were more commonly known
by the name of Delphi.

See DELPHI.

{2619}

----------QUADI, The: Start--------

QUADI, The:
Early place and history.

See MARCOMANNI.

QUADI, The:
Campaigns of Marcus Aurelius against.

See SARMATIAN AND MARCOMANNIAN WARS OF MARCUS AURELIUS.

QUADI, The: A. D. 357-359.
War of Constantius.

See LIMIGANTES.

QUADI, The: A. D. 374-375.
War of Valentinian.

A treacherous outrage of peculiar blackness, committed by a
worthless Roman officer on the frontier, in 374, provoked the
Quadi to invade the province of Pannonia. They overran it with
little opposition, and their success encouraged inroads by the
neighboring Sarmatian tribes. In the following year, the
Emperor Valentinian led a retaliatory expedition into the
country of the Quadi and revenged himself upon it with
unmerciful severity. At the approach of winter he returned
across the Danube, but only to wait another spring, when his
purpose was to complete the annihilation of the offending
Quadi. The latter, thereupon, sent ambassadors to humbly pray
for peace. The choleric emperor received them, but their
presence excited him to such rage that a blood vessel was
ruptured in his body and he died on the spot.

_E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 25._

QUADI, The:
Probable Modern Representatives of.

See BOHEMIA: ITS PEOPLE.

----------QUADI, The: End--------

QUADRILATERAL, The.

A famous military position in northern Italy, formed by the
strong fortresses at Peschiera, Verona, Mantua, and Legnano,
bears this name. "The Quadrilateral … fulfils all the
requirements of a good defensive position, which are to cover
rearward territory, to offer absolute shelter to a defending
army whenever required, and to permit of ready offensive:
first, by the parallel course of the Mincio and Adige;
secondly, by the fortresses on these rivers; thirdly, by
passages offered at fortified points which insure the command
of the rivers."

_Major C. Adams,
Great Campaigns in Europe from 1790 to 1870,
page 232._

QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE (A. D. 1718).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1713-1725;
also, ITALY: A. D. 1715-1735.

QUÆSTIO PERPETUA.

See CALPURNIAN LAW.

QUÆSTOR, The Imperial.

In the later Roman empire, "the Quaestor had the care of
preparing the Imperial speeches, and was responsible for the
language of the laws. … His office is not unlike that of the
Chancellor of a mediaeval monarch."

_T. Hodgkin,
Italy and Her Invaders,
book 1, chapter 3 (volume 1)._

QUÆSTORS, Roman.

"Probably created as assistants to the consuls in the first
year of the republic. At first two; in 421 B. C., four; in
241, eight; in 81, twenty; in 45, forty. Thrown open to
plebeians in 421 B. C. Elected in the Comitia Tributa. The
quæstor's office lasted as long as the consul's to whom he was
attached."

_H. F. Horton,
History of the Romans,
appendix A._

"We have seen how the care of the city's treasures had been
intrusted to two city quæstors, soon after the abolition of
the monarchy. In like manner, soon after the fall of the
decemvirate, the expenditures connected with military affairs,
which had hitherto been in the hands of the consuls, were put
under the control of new patrician officers, the military
quæstors, who were to accompany the army on its march."

_A. Tighe,
Development of the Roman Constitution,
chapter 6._

ALSO IN:
_W. Ihne,
Researches into the History of the Roman Constitution,
pages 70-84._

QUÆSTORS OF THE FLEET.

See ROME: B. C. 275.

----------QUAKERS: Start--------

QUAKERS:
Origin of the Society of Friends.
George Fox and his early Disciples.