Chapter CCCLXVI: Section 16: ) which reserves to the Empire the regulation of the (1)

Press, and by a measure of May 7th, 1874, which gives to this
provision concrete form. This is the Press Law of Germany
to-day. The law does, indeed, concede, in principle at least,
the freedom of the Press (Pressfreiheit), and it abolishes the
formal censorship. But a severe form of control is still
exercised by the police, whose authority over the Press is
greater in reality than it seems to be from the letter of the
statute. It is no longer necessary, as it once was, and still
is in Russia, to obtain sanction for the issue of each number
before it is sent into the world, but it is the legal duty of
a publisher to lay a copy of his journal before the police
authority directly it reaches the press. This an informal
censor revises, and in the event of any article being
obnoxious he may order the immediate confiscation of the whole
issue, or a court of law, which in such matters works very
speedily, may do so for him. As the police and judicial
authorities have wide discretion in the determination of
editorial culpability, this power of confiscation is felt to
be a harsh one. While the Socialist Law existed the powers of
the police were far more extensive than now, and that they
were also real is proved by the wholesale extermination of
newspapers of Socialistic tendencies which took place between
the years 1878 and 1890. Since that law disappeared, however,
Socialist journals have sprung up again in abundance, though
the experience gained by their conductors in the unhappy past
does not enable them to steer clear of friction with the
authorities. The police, too, regulates the public sale of
newspapers and decides whether they shall be cried in the
street or not. In Berlin special editions cannot be published
without the prior sanction of this authority. … So frequent
are prosecutions of editors that many newspapers are compelled
to maintain on their staffs batches of Sitzredakteure, or
'sitting editors,' whose special function is to serve in
prison (colloquially sitzen=sit) the terms of detention that
may be awarded for the too liberal exercise of the critical
faculty. … Some measure of the public depreciation of
newspapers is due to the fact that they are largely in Hebrew
hands. In the large towns the Press is, indeed, essentially a
Jewish institution."

_W. H. Dawson,
Germany and the Germans,
part 2, chapter 1 (volume 1)._

PRINTING AND THE PRESS:
American Periodicals founded before 1870 and existing in 1894.

The following is a carefully prepared chronological list of
important newspapers and other periodicals, still published
(1894) in the United States and Canada, which have existed for
a quarter of a century or more, having been founded before
1870. The * before a title indicates that the information
given has been obtained directly from the publisher. For some
of the periodicals not so marked, the dates of beginning have
been taken from their own files. In other cases, where
publishers have neglected to answer a request for information,
the facts have been borrowed from Rowell's American Newspaper
Directory:

1764.
* Connecticut Courant (Hartford), w.;
added Courant, d., 1836.

* Quebec Gazette (French and English), weekly; ran many years
as tri-weekly, in English; discontinued for about 16 years;
now resumed as Quebec Gazette in connection with Quebec
Morning Chronicle (founded 1847).

1766 or 1767.
* Connecticut Herald and Post Boy
(New Haven); various names;
now Connecticut Herald and Weekly Journal.

1768.
* Essex Gazette; changes of name and place; suspended;
revived at Salem, Massachusetts, as Salem Mercury, 1786;
became semi-weekly, 1796; became Salem Daily Gazette, 1892.

1770.
Worcester Spy, weekly; added daily, 1845.

1771.
* Pennsylvania Packet and General Advertiser
(Philadelphia), weekly;
became Pennsylvania Packet and American Daily Advertiser,
daily, 1784;
consolidated with North American (founded 1839), 1839;
consolidated with United States Gazette (established 1789,
see 1789, Gazette of the U. S.),
as North American and United States Gazette, 1847;
became North American, 1876.

{2603}

1773.
* Maryland Journal and Baltimore Advertiser;
merged in Baltimore American, 1799.

1778.
* Gazette (Montreal), weekly; now daily and weekly;
since 1870 absorbed Telegraph and Daily News.

1785.
*Falmouth (Maine) Gazette and Weekly Advertiser;
Cumberland Gazette, 1786;
Gazette of Maine, 1790;
Eastern Herald, 1792;
Eastern Herald and Gazette of Maine, 1796;
Jenks' Portland Gazette, 1798;
Portland Gazette and Maine Advertiser, 1805;
Portland Advertiser, semi-weekly, 1823; daily, 1831.
* Journal (Poughkeepsie, New York); established to take the
place of New York Journal, published at Poughkeepsie, 1778-1783;
consolidated with Eagle (founded 1828—see 1828,
Dutchess Intelligencer), as Journal and Eagle;
became Eagle after a few years.

1786.
Hampshire Gazette (Northampton, Massachusetts).
Pittsburgh Commercial Gazette.

1789.
* Gazette of the United States (New York);
removed to Philadelphia, 1790; daily, 1793;
became The Union, or United States Gazette and True American;
merged in North American, 1847.
Berkshire County Eagle (Pittsfield, Massachusetts), weekly.

1793.
Gazette (Cincinnati), weekly; added daily,
Commercial Gazette, 1841.
Minerva (New York), daily, and Herald, semi-weekly;
became Commercial Advertiser, and New York Spectator.
Newburyport (Massachusetts) Herald.
Utica Gazette; consolidated with Herald (founded 1847),
as Morning Herald and Gazette.

1794.
Rutland (Vermont) Herald.

1796.
* Sentinel of Freedom (Newark), weekly;
added Newark Daily Advertiser, daily, 1832.

1800.
* Salem Register, weekly; then semi-weekly; now weekly.

1801.
New York Evening Post.
Ægis and Gazette (Worcester), weekly;
added Evening Gazette, 1843.

1803.
Charleston News and Courier.
Portland (Maine) Eastern Argus.

1804.
Pittsburgh Post.

1805.
Missionary Herald (Boston), monthly.
* Quebec Mercury, tri-weekly; became daily about 1860.

1806.
* Precurser (Montpelier), weekly;
became Vermont Watchman, 1807, weekly.

1807.
* New Bedford (Massachusetts) Mercury, weekly;
added daily, 1831.

1808.
* Cooperstown(New York) Federalist;
became Freeman's Journal, weekly, 1820.
Le Canadien (Montreal).
St. Louis Republic, weekly; added daily, 1835.

1809.
* New Hampshire Patriot (Concord, New Hampshire);
consolidated with People (founded 1868)
as People and Patriot, 1878, daily and weekly.
Montreal Herald.

1810.
Kingston (Ontario) News, weekly.; added daily, 1851.

1811.
* Buffalo Gazette, weekly;
became Niagara Patriot, weekly, 1818;
became Buffalo Patriot, weekly, July 10, 1821;
added Buffalo Commercial Advertiser, daily, 1835.
* Western Intelligencer;
Western Intelligencer and Columbus Gazette, 1814;
became Ohio State Journal, 1825; daily, 1839.

1812.
* Columbian Weekly Register (New Haven);
added Evening Register, daily, 1848.

1813.
Albany Argus.
Boston Advertiser.
Acadian Recorder (Halifax).

1815.
North American Review (New York), monthly.

1816.
* Boston Recorder; merged in Congregationalist, weekly, 1867.
Knoxville Tribune, weekly; added daily, 1865.
Rochester Union and Advertiser, weekly; added daily, 1826.

1817.
* Hartford Times, weekly; added daily., 1841.

1819.
* Cleveland Herald;
consolidated with Evening News (founded 1868), 1885.
See 1848. Cleveland Leader.
Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock).
* Oswego Palladium, weekly; added daily about 1860.

1820.
Nova Scotian (Halifax), weekly;
added Chronicle, 3 times a week, 1845;
added Morning Chronicle, 1865.
* Manufacturers' and Farmers' Journal
(Providence), semi-weekly; added Daily Journal, 1829.

1821.
* Christian Register (Boston), weekly.
Indianapolis Sentinel.
Mobile Register.

1822.
Broome Republican (Binghamton, New York), weekly;
added Republican, daily, 1849.
* Old Colony Memorial (Plymouth, Massachusetts), weekly;
has absorbed Plymouth Rock, and Old Colony Sentinel.

1823.
Auburn (New York) News and Democrat, weekly;
added Bulletin, daily, 1870.
Zion's Herald (Boston), weekly.
* New Hampshire Statesman (Concord), weekly;
consolidated with Independent Democrat (founded 1845),
as Independent Statesman, 1871; added daily,
Concord Evening Monitor, 1864.
* Western Censor and Emigrant's Guide (Indianapolis);
became Indianapolis Journal, weekly,
and semi-weekly during session of the Legislature;
became weekly and daily, 1850.
* Observer (New York), weekly.
* Register (New York), weekly; became Examiner, 1855.
Poughkeepsie News-Telegraph, weekly;
added News-Press, daily, 1852.

1824.
* Springfield (Massachusetts) Republican, weekly;
added daily, 1844.

1825.
Kennebec Journal, weekly; added daily, 1870.
* Rome (New York) Republican, weekly; became Telegram;
became Sentinel, 1837; added daily, 1852-1860;
added daily, 1881.

1826.
Detroit Free Press, weekly; added daily, 1835.
* Lowell Courier, weekly; added daily, 1845;
weekly now called Lowell Weekly Journal.
* La Minerve (Montreal), daily and weekly.
Christian Advocate (New York), weekly.
Journal of the Franklin Institute (Philadelphia), monthly.
* St. Lawrence Republican (Potsdam, New York) weekly;
removed to Canton, N. Y., 1827; removed to Ogdensburg, 1830,
and consolidated with St. Lawrence Gazette (founded 1815);
purchased by Ogdensburg Journal (founded 1855), daily, 1858;
both papers continue.
Rochester Democrat; consolidated with
Chronicle (founded 1868) as Democrat and Chronicle.

{2604}

1827.
* Youth's Companion (Boston), weekly.
* Independent News Letter (Cleveland);
became Advertiser, 1832; became Plain Dealer, 1842.
Columbus (Ohio) Press.
New York Journal of Commerce.

1828.
* Orleans Republican (Albion, New York), weekly.
Burlington (Vermont) Free Press, weekly, added daily, 1844.
Montgomery (Alabama) Advertiser.
* Dutchess Intelligencer (Poughkeepsie, New York);
consolidated with Dutchess Republican, as Poughkeepsie Eagle,
weekly, 1833; consolidated with Poughkeepsie Journal
(see 1785, Journal), as Journal and Eagle, 1844; now Eagle;
added daily, 1860.

1829.
* Auburn (New York) Journal, weekly;
added Daily Advertiser, 1844.
* Northwestern Journal (Detroit), weekly;
semi-weekly, then 3 times a week, 1835;
became Daily Advertiser, 1836;
consolidated with Tribune (founded 1849), as
Advertiser and Tribune, 1862;
consolidated with Daily Post (founded 1866),
as Post and Tribune, 1877; became Tribune, 1885.
* Elmira Gazette, weekly, added daily, 1860.
Philadelphia Inquirer.
* Providence Daily Journal.
* Syracuse Standard; successor to Onondaga Standard.

1830.
* Albany Evening Journal.
* Boston Transcript.
Louisville Journal; consolidated with Courier
(founded 1843) and Democrat (founded 1844),
under name of Louisville Courier-Journal, 1868.
* Evangelist (New York), weekly.
* Sunday School Journal (Philadelphia), weekly;
merged in Sunday School Times, 1859.

1831.
Orleans American (Albion, New York), weekly.
* Boston Daily Post.
Presbyterian (Philadelphia), weekly.
Illinois State Journal (Springfield), weekly;
added daily, 1848.

1832.
* Patriot (Montpelier, Vermont);
consolidated with Argus (founded 1851, Bellows Falls),
as Argus and Patriot, weekly, 1862.
* Herald (New Haven), daily; various names;
became Journal and Courier, 1849.
Morning Journal and Courier (New Haven).

1833.
* Catholic Intelligencer (Boston), weekly;
successor to Jesuit; became Pilot, 1836.
* Boston Mercantile Journal; now Boston Journal.
* The Sun (New York).

1834.
Bangor Whig and Courier.
* Western Christian Advocate (Cincinnati), weekly.
* British Whig (Kingston, Ontario), daily, 1849.
* New Yorker Staats-Zeitung, weekly; added daily, 1845
Anzeiger des Westens (St. Louis).

1835.
* New York Herald.
Schenectady Reflector, weekly; added Evening Star, 1855.
Troy Morning Telegram.

1836.
* Miner's Express, weekly;
merged in Dubuque Herald (founded 1853), now daily and weekly.
* Public Ledger and Daily Transcript (Philadelphia).
* Illinois State Register (Vandalia), weekly;
absorbed People's Advocate, 1836;
removed to Springfield, 1839;
absorbed Illinois Republican, 1839; added daily, 1848.
* Toledo Blade, weekly; added daily, 1848.

1837.
* Sun (Baltimore), daily and weekly.
Buffalo Demokrat und Weltbürger.
Burlington (Iowa) Gazette.
* Cincinnati Times, daily and weekly;
daily consolidated with Star (founded 1872),
daily and weekly, as Cincinnati Times-Star, 1880.
Southern Christian Advocate (Columbia, South Carolina), weekly.
Jackson (Mississippi) Clarion, weekly.
* Milwaukee Sentinel, weekly;
absorbed Gazette and became Sentinel-Gazette, 1846;
dropped "Gazette," 1851; daily 1844.
* New Orleans Picayune.

1838.
Bangor Commercial.
* Philadelphia Demokrat.
* St. Louis Evening Gazette;
became Evening Mirror, 1847;
became New Era, 1848;
became Intelligencer, 1849;
became Evening News, 1857;
consolidated with Dispatch, 1867;
consolidated with Evening Post, as Post Dispatch, 1878.

1839.
* Iowa Patriot (Burlington), weekly;
became Hawkeye and Iowa Patriot;
has been, at various times, semi-weekly, and daily;
now Burlington Hawkeye, daily and weekly.
* Christliche Apologete (Cincinnati), weekly.
* Madison Express, weekly;
became Wisconsin Express, 1848; daily, 1851;
consolidated with a new paper, Statesman, as Palladium,
daily and weekly, 1852;
became Wisconsin State Journal, 1852.
Freeman's Journal and Catholic Register (New York), weekly.
* North American (Philadelphia);
absorbed Pennsylvania Packet
(see 1771, Pennsylvania Packet), 1839.
Western State Journal (Syracuse), weekly;
became Syracuse Journal, 1844; added daily, 1846;
absorbed Evening Chronicle, 1856; added semi-weekly, 1893.

1840.
Chicago Tribune.
* Appeal Memphis);
consolidated with Avalanche (founded 1857),
as Appeal-Avalanche, 1890 (?);
consolidated with Commercial (founded 1889),
as Commercial Appeal, 1894.
* Union and Evangelist (Uniontown, Pennsylvania);
became Evangelist and Observer at Pittsburgh;
succeeded by Cumberland Presbyterian,
about 1846, at Uniontown; removed to Brownsville;
then to Waynesburg; to Alton, Illinois, in 1868;
and to Nashville, Tennessee, in 1874;
here consolidated with Banner of Peace
(founded, Princeton, Kentucky, 1840;
removed to Lebanon, Tennessee, 1843; then to Nashville).
* Roman Citizen, weekly; became Rome Semi-Weekly Citizen, 1888.

1841.
* Brooklyn Eagle.
* Prairie Farmer (Chicago), weekly.
* New York Tribune.
* Pittsburgh Chronicle;
consolidated with Pittsburgh Telegraph (founded 1873), as
Pittsburgh Chronicle Telegraph, 1884.
Reading Eagle, weekly; added daily, 1868.

{2605}

1842.
* Daily Mercantile Courier and Democratic Economist (Buffalo);
became Daily Courier and Economist, 1843;
became Buffalo Courier, daily, 1845.
* Cincinnati Enquirer, daily and semi-weekly.
* Galveston News.
Rural New Yorker (New York), weekly.
* Preacher (Pittsburgh), weekly;
became United Presbyterian, 1854.

1843.
* Albany Daily Knickerbocker;
consolidated with Press (founded 1877), as
Daily Press and Knickerbocker, 1877.
* Steuben Courier (Bath, New York).

1844.
Chicago Evening Journal.
* Woechentlicher Seebote (Milwaukee);
became Der Seebote, daily and Woechentlicher Seebote.
* American Baptist (New York);
became Baptist Weekly;
has absorbed Gospel Age;
became Christian Inquirer, weekly, 1888.
* Churchman (New York), weekly.
*New Yorker Demokrat; New Yorker Journal, 1862;
consolidated as New Yorker Zeitung, 1878.
Eclectic Magazine of Foreign Literature (New York), monthly.
Ledger (New York), weekly.
Oswego Times.
* Globe (Toronto).

1845.
* Binghamton Democrat, weekly; added daily, 1864.
* Buffalo Morning Express.
* Independent Democrat (Concord, New Hampshire).
See 1823, New Hampshire Statesman.
Montreal Witness, weekly; added daily, 1860.
Scientific American (New York), weekly.
* St. Joseph (Missouri) Gazette, daily and weekly.

1846.
* Boston Herald, daily and weekly.
* Evening News (Hamilton, Ontario), daily and weekly;
successor to Journal and Express, semi-weekly;
became Banner and Railway Chronicle, 1852 or 1853;
became Evening Times, 1858.
* Hamilton (Ontario) Spectator, semi-weekly; added daily, 1852.
Keokuk (Iowa) Gate City.
* Bankers' Magazine (New York), monthly.
* Newport (Rhode Island) Daily News.
Pittsburgh Dispatch.

1847.
* Albany Morning Express.
New England Historical and Genealogical Register (Boston),
quarterly.
Boston Traveller.
Illinois Staats-Zeitung (Chicago).
* Lewiston (Maine) Weekly Journal;
added Evening Journal, 1861.
London (Ontario) Free Press, weekly; added daily, 1859.
* Evening Wisconsin Milwaukee).
Iron Age (New York), weekly.
Toledo Commercial.
Utica Morning Herald; consolidated with Gazette (founded 1793),
as Morning Herald and Gazette.

1848.
* Massachusetts Teacher;
afterwards, with College Courant (founded 1866, New Haven),
Rhode Island Schoolmaster (founded 1855),
and Connecticut School Journal,
formed Journal of Education (founded 1875, Boston).
* Williamsburg Times; became Brooklyn Daily Times, 1854.
* Cleveland Leader, daily;
added, by purchase, Evening News (founded 1868), 1869;
purchased Cleveland Herald (founded 1819), and consolidated it
with Evening News, as News and Herald, 1885.
Des Moines Leader.
* Independent (New York), weekly.

1849.
* Congregationalist (Boston), weekly;
absorbed Boston Recorder (founded 1816), 1867.
* Detroit Tribune; consolidated with Post, 1877.
See 1829, Northwestern Journal.
* Irish American (New York), weekly.
* Water Cure Journal (New York);
became Herald of Health, 1863;
became Journal of Hygiene and Herald of Health, m., 1893.
* St. Paul Pioneer, weekly; daily, 1854;
consolidated with St. Paul Press (founded 1860), daily,
as Pioneer Press, 1875.
Wilkesbarre Leader, weekly; added daily, 1879.

1850.
* Buffalo Christian Advocate, weekly.
Kansas City (Missouri) Times.
Mirror and American (Manchester, New Hampshire).
Harper's New Monthly Magazine (New York).
* Oregonian (Portland), weekly; added daily, 1861.
Richmond Dispatch.
* Deseret News (Salt Lake City), weekly;
added semi-weekly, 1865; added daily, 1867.
* Morning News (Savannah, Georgia), daily and weekly;
absorbed Savannah Republican (founded 1802),
and Savannah Daily Advertiser (founded 1866), 1874.
* Watertown (New York) Weekly Reformer;
added Daily Times, 1860.

1851.
La Crosse Morning Chronicle.
* Union Democrat (Manchester, New Hampshire), weekly;
added Manchester Union, daily, 1863.
* Argus (Bellows Falls); consolidated with Patriot,
at Montpelier, under name of Argus and Patriot, weekly, 1862.
* New York Times, daily and weekly.
* Rochester Beobachter, weekly; 3 times a week, 1855;
daily, 1863; consolidated with Abendpost (founded 1880),
as Rochester Abendpost und Beobachter, daily and weekly, 1881.
St. Joseph (Mo.) Herald.
* Troy (New York) Times, daily.

1852.
Wächter am Erie (Cleveland).
St. Louis Globe–Democrat.
Wheeling Intelligencer (Wheeling, West Virginia).

1853.
Elmira Advertiser.
Frank Leslie's Illustrated Weekly (New York).
Richmond Anzeiger.
San Francisco Evening Post.
Toledo Express.
Washington Evening Star.
* Record of the Times (Wilkesbarre), weekly;
added Wilkesbarre Record, daily, 1873.

1854.
* Deutsche Zeitung (Charleston, South Carolina),
semi-weekly and weekly;
suspended during four years of Civil War.
Chicago Times, daily and weekly.
* American Israelite (Cincinnati), weekly.
* Kansas City (Missouri) Journal, weekly; added daily, 1864.
La Crosse Republican and Leader.
Herold (Milwaukee).
* Nebraska City News.
* Anzeiger des Nordens (Rochester);
became Rochester Volksblatt, weekly, 1859, added daily, 1863.

{2606}

1855.
* Ogdensburg Journal, daily;
purchased St. Lawrence Republican (founded 1826), weekly, 1858.

1856.
* Albany Times; absorbed Evening Courier, 1861;
consolidated with Evening Union (founded 1882),
as Albany Times-Union, daily and weekly, 1891.
* Buffalo Allgemeine Zeitung, weekly;
succeeded by Buffalo Freie Presse, daily 3 months,
then semi-weekly; daily, 1872.
* Iowa State Register (Des Moines), weekly; added daily, 1861.
Dubuque Times.
* Western Railroad Gazette (Chicago), weekly;
became Railroad Gazette; removed to New York, 1871.
San Francisco Call.
* Scranton Republican, weekly; added daily, 1867.

1857.
Baltimore News.
Atlantic Monthly (Boston).
* Banner of Light (Boston), weekly.
Leavenworth Times.
New Haven Union.
Harper's Weekly (New York).
* Jewish Messenger (New York), weekly.
* Scottish American (New York), weekly.
Philadelphia Press.
Courrier du Canada (Quebec).
Westliche Post (St. Louis).
Syracuse Courier.

1858.
Hartford Evening Post; Connecticut Post, weekly.
Nebraska Press (Nebraska City), daily and weekly.
Rochester Post-Express.

1859.
* Boston Commercial Bulletin, weekly.
* Rocky Mountain News (Denver), weekly; added daily, 1860.
Kansas City (Missouri) Post (German).
* Sunday School Times (Philadelphia), weekly;
succeeded Sunday School Journal (founded 1830);
absorbed Sunday School Workman (founded 1870), 1871;
absorbed National Sunday School Teacher (founded 1866), 1882.
St. John (New Brunswick) Globe.

1860.
World (New York).

1861.
Commonwealth (Boston), weekly.

1862.
* New Yorker Journal. See 1844, New Yorker Demokrat.
* Maine State Press (Portland), weekly;
Portland Press, daily.
Raleigh News and Observer.
St. John (New Brunswick) Telegraph, weekly;added daily, 1869.

1863.
* Brooklyn Daily Union;
consolidated with Brooklyn Daily Standard (founded 1884),
as Brooklyn Standard Union, 1887.
London (Ontario) Advertiser.
* New Orleans Times;
consolidated with Democrat (founded 1876),
as New Orleans Times–Democrat, 1881, all daily and weekly.
Army and Navy Journal (New York), weekly.
Portland (Oregon) Evening Telegram.
Providence Evening Bulletin.
* Sioux City Journal, weekly; added daily, 1870.
* Wheeling Register.

1864.
* Concord (New Hampshire) Evening Monitor, daily;
issued in connection with Independent Statesman
(see 1823, New Hampshire Statesman).
Reading Post (German), weekly; added daily, 1867.
* Springfield (Massachusetts) Union.

1865.
Albany Evening Post.
* Skandinaven (Chicago), weekly; daily, 1871.
Halifax Morning Chronicle.
Florida Times-Union (Jacksonville).
Memphis Public Ledger.

* Catholic World (New York City), monthly.
[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/39367 (first of many)]

* Commercial and Financial Chronicle (New York), weekly;
absorbed Hunt's Merchants' Magazine, 1870.
Nation (New York), weekly
Norfolk Virginian.
* Daily Herald (Omaha, Nebraska); consolidated with
Evening World (founded 1885), as World-Herald, 1889.
* Index (Petersburg, Virginia);
consolidated with Appeal (successor to Express,
founded in 1848), as Index-Appeal, 1873.
Philadelphia Abend Post.
San Antonio Express.
* San Francisco Chronicle.
* Union (Schenectady), daily, and weekly.

1866.
* Denver Tribune;
consolidated with Denver Republican (founded 1878),
under name of Tribune-Republican, 1884;
became Denver Republican, daily and weekly.
* Christian at Work (New York), weekly;
became Christian Work, 1894;
has absorbed The Continent, The Manhattan Magazine,
Every Thursday, and others.
Engineering and Mining Journal (New York), weekly.
Sanitarian (New York), monthly.

1867.
* Advance (Chicago), weekly.
* Evening Journal (Jersey City).
* Nebraska Commonwealth (Lincoln), weekly; became
Nebraska State Journal, weekly, 1869; added daily, 1870.
* Democrat (Madison, Wisconsin), daily and weekly.
Minneapolis Tribune.
* Le Monde (Montreal).
Engineering News (New York), weekly.
Harper's Bazaar (New York), weekly.
American Naturalist (Philadelphia), monthly.
* L'Evenement (Quebec).
* Seattle Intelligencer, weekly; daily, 1876;
consolidated with Post (founded 1878), daily,
under name of Post-Intelligencer, 1881.
Vicksburg Commercial Herald, weekly; added daily, 1869.
Wilmington (North Carolina) Messenger.
* Morning Star (Wilmington, North Carolina).

1868.
Atlanta Constitution.
* Buffalo Volksfreund, daily and weekly.
* People (Concord, New Hampshire).
See 1809, New Hampshire Patriot.
Lippincott's Magazine (Philadelphia), monthly.
St. Paul Dispatch.
* San Diego Union, weekly; added daily, 1871.
Troy Press.

1869.
* Evening Star (Montreal);
became Montreal Evening Star, then Montreal Daily Star;
added Family Herald and Weekly Star, weekly.
* Christian Union (New York), weekly; became The Outlook, 1893.
Manufacturer and Builder (New York), monthly.
* Ottawa Free Press, daily and weekly.
Scranton Times, daily and weekly.

{2607}

PRIOR. PRIORY.

See MONASTERY.

PRIORIES, Alien.

"These were cells of foreign abbeys, founded upon estates
which English proprietors had given to the foreign houses."

_E. L. Cutts,
Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages,
chapter 4._

PRIORS OF THE FLORENTINE GUILDS.

See FLORENCE: A. D. 1250-1203.

PRISAGE.

See TUNNAGE AND POUNDAGE.

PRISON-SHIPS, British, at New York.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776-1777
PRISONERS AND EXCHANGES.

PRISONS AND PRISON-PENS,
Confederate.
Libby.
Belle Isle.
Andersonville.

"The Libby, which is best known, though also used as a place
of confinement for private soldiers, is generally understood
to be the officers' prison. It is a row of brick buildings,
three stories high, situated on the canal [in Richmond,
Virginia], and overlooking the James river, and was formerly a
tobacco warehouse. … The rooms are 100 feet long by 40 feet
broad. In six of these rooms, 1,200 United States officers, of
all grades, from the Brigadier-General to the Second-Lieutenant,
were confined for many months, and this was all
the space that was allowed them in which to cook, eat, wash,
sleep, and take exercise. … Ten feet by two were all that
could be claimed by each man—hardly enough to measure his
length upon; and even this was further abridged by the room
necessarily taken for cooking, washing and clothes-drying. At
one time they were not allowed the use of benches, chairs, or
stools, nor even to fold their blankets and sit upon them, but
those who would rest were obliged to huddle on their haunches,
as one of them expresses it, 'like so many slaves on the
middle passage.' After awhile this severe restriction was
removed, and they were allowed to make chairs and stools for
themselves, out of the barrels and boxes which they had
received from the North. They were overrun with vermin in
spite of every precaution and constant ablutions. Their
blankets, which averaged one to a man, and sometimes less, had
not been issued by the rebels, but had been procured in
different ways; sometimes by purchase, sometimes through the
Sanitary Commission. The prisoners had to help themselves from
the refuse accumulation of these articles. … The prison did
not seem to be under any general and uniform army regulations,
but the captives were subject to the caprices of Major Turner,
the officer in charge, and Richard Turner, inspector of the
prison. It was among the rules that no one should go within
three feet of the windows, a rule which seems to be general in
all Southern prisons of this character. … Often by accident,
or unconsciously, an officer would go near a window, and be
instantly shot at without warning. The reports of the sentry's
musket were heard almost every day, and frequently a prisoner
fell either killed or wounded. It was even worse with a large
prison near by, called the Pemberton Buildings, which was
crowded with enlisted men. … The daily ration in the officers'
quarter of Libby Prison was a small loaf of bread about the
size of a man's fist, made of Indian meal. Sometimes it was
made from wheat flour, but of variable quality. It weighed a
little over half a pound. With it was given a piece of beef
weighing two ounces. … But there is a still lower depth of
suffering to be exposed. The rank of the officers, however
disregarded in most respects, induced some consideration, but
for the private soldiers there seemed to be no regard
whatever, and no sentiment which could restrain. It is to this
most melancholy part of their task that the Commissioners now
proceed. Belle Isle is a small island in the James river,
opposite the Tredegar Iron–works, and in full sight from the
Libby windows. … The portion on which the prisoners are
confined is low, sandy, and barren, without a tree to cast a
shadow, and poured upon by the burning rays of a Southern sun.
Here is an enclosure, variously estimated to be from three to
six acres in extent, surrounded by an earthwork about three
feet high, with a ditch on either side. … The interior has
something of the look of an encampment, a number of Sibley
tents being set in rows, with 'streets' between. These tents,
rotten, torn, full of holes,—poor shelter at any
rate,—accommodated only a small proportion of the number who
were confined within these low earth walls. The number varied
at different periods, but from 10,000 to 12,000 men have been
imprisoned in this small space at one time, turned into the
enclosure like so many cattle, to find what resting place they
could. … Thousands had no tents, and no shelter of any kind.
Nothing was provided for their accommodation. Lumber was
plenty in a country of forests, but not a cabin or shed was
built. … Every day, during the winter season, numbers were
conveyed away stiff and stark, having fallen asleep in
everlasting cold. … They were fed as the swine are fed. A
chunk of corn-bread, 12 or 14 ounces in weight, half-baked,
full of cracks as if baked in the sun, musty in taste,
containing whole grains of corn, fragments of cob, and pieces
of husks; meat often tainted, suspiciously like mule–meat, and
a mere mouthful at that; two or three spoonfuls of rotten
beans; soup thin and briny, often with worms floating on the
surface. None of these were given together, and the whole
ration was never one-half the quantity necessary for the
support of a healthy man."

_V. Mott, and others,
Report of United States Sanitary Commission Com. of
Inquiry on the Sufferings of Prisoners of War in
the hands of the Rebel Authorities,
chapters 2-3._

The little hamlet of Anderson, so named, in 1853, after John
W. Anderson, of Savannah, but called Andersonville by the Post
Office Department, is situated in the heart of the richest
portion of the cotton and corn-growing region of Georgia, on
the Southwestern Railroad, 62 miles south from Macon and 9
miles north of Americus. "Here, on the 27th day of November,
1863, W. S. Winder, a captain in the rebel army, and who was
selected for the purpose, came and located the grounds, for a
'Confederate States Military Prison.' … When the site was
definitely established, it was found to be covered with a
thick growth of pines and oaks. … It was … suggested to W. S.
Winder by a disinterested spectator of his preliminary
proceedings … that the shade afforded by the trees would prove
grateful protections to the prisoners. The reply was
characteristic of the man and prophetic of their future fate.
'That is just what I am not going to do! I will make a pen
here for the d—d Yankees, where they will rot faster than they
can be sent!' … The trees were leveled to the ground, and the
space was cleared. … No buildings, barracks, houses, or huts
of any kind were built.
{2608}
The canopy of the sky was the only covering." In March, 1864,
John H. Winder, father of the W. S. Winder mentioned above,
became commandant of the post, and with him came Henry Wirz,
as superintendent of the prison. These two names are linked in
infamy with the horrors of the Andersonville Prison-Pen. "The
stockade at Andersonville was originally built, as we learn
from many sources, with a capacity for 10,000, its area being
about 18 acres. It continued without enlargement until the
month of June, 1864, when it was increased about one third,
its area then, as shown by actual survey, being 23½ acres. …
From Colonel Chandler's Inspection Report [the report of a
Confederate official], dated August 5th, 1864, I quote the
following: 'A railing around the inside of the stockade, and
about 20 feet from it, constitutes the 'dead line,' beyond
which prisoners are not allowed to pass. A small stream passes
from west to east through the inclosure, about 150 yards from
its southern limit, and furnishes the only water for washing
accessible to the prisoners. Bordering this stream, about
three quarters of an acre in the centre of the inclosure are
so marshy as to be at present unfit for occupation, reducing
the available present area to about 23½ acres, which gives
somewhat less than six square feet to each prisoner'; and, he
remarks, 'even this is being constantly reduced by the
additions to their number.' … Dr. Joseph Jones, Professor of
Chemistry in the Medical College of Georgia, … went to
Andersonville under the direction of the surgeon general of
the Confederacy, pursuant to an order dated Richmond,
Virginia, August 6th, 1864. … Dr. Jones proceeds to give a
table illustrating the mean strength of prisoners confined in
the stockade. … His table … shows the following as the mean
result: March, 7,500; April, 10,000; May, 15,000; June,
22,291; July, 29,030; August, 32,899. He says: 'Within the
circumscribed area of the stockade the Federal prisoners were
compelled to perform all the offices of life, cooking,
washing, urinating, defecation, exercise, and sleeping.' …
'The low grounds bordering the stream were covered with human
excrement and filth of all kinds, which in many cases appeared
to be alive with working maggots. An indescribable sickening
stench arose from the fermenting mass of human dung and
filth.' And again: 'There were nearly 5,000 seriously-ill
Federals in the stockade and Confederate States Military
Prison Hospital, and the deaths exceeded 100 per day. … I
visited 2,000 sick within the stockade, lying under some long
sheds which they had built at the northern portion for
themselves. At this time only one medical officer was in
attendance.'" At the close of the war, Wirz, the inhuman
jailor of Andersonville was tried for his many crimes before a
military commission, over which General Lewis Wallace
presided, was condemned and was hanged, at Andersonville,
November 10, 1865. His superior officer, Winder, escaped the
earthly tribunal by dying of a gangrenous disorder, which had
been caused, without doubt, by the poisoned air of the place.

_A. Spencer,
Narrative of Andersonville,
chapters 1, 4, 5, 13, 15._

"There can be no accurate count of the mortality in rebel
prisons. The report made by the War Department to the 40th
Congress shows that about 188,000 Union soldiers were captured
by the Confederates; that half of them were paroled, and half
confined in prison; of this number 36,000 died in captivity.
The Union armies, on the other hand, captured 476,000
Confederates: of these 227,000 were retained as prisoners, and
30,000 died. While the percentage of mortality in Northern
prisons was 13 in the hundred, that in rebel prisons was 38."

_J. G. Nicolay and J. Hay,
Abraham Lincoln,
volume 7, chapter 16._

_Report of Special Commission on Treatment of Prisoners
(H.R. Report No. 45, 40th Cong., 3d Session)._

_Trial of Henry Wirz._

_Southern Historical Society Papers,
volume 1._

ALSO IN:
_J. McElroy,
Andersonville.
[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/4257 (volume 1)]_

_F. F. Cavada,
Libby Life_.

_A. B. Isham, H. M. Davidson and H. B. Furness,
Prisoners of War and Military Prisons._

PRIVATE WARFARE, The Right of.

See LANDFRIEDE.

PRIVATEERING, American, in the War of 1812.

"The war [of 1812-14] lasted about three years, and the result
was, as near as I have been able to ascertain, a loss to Great
Britain of about 2,000 ships and vessels of every description,
including men-of-war and merchantmen. Eighteen hundred sail
are recorded as having been taken, burnt, sunk, or destroyed.
To this number may be added 200 more, which were either
destroyed or considered too insignificant to be reported;
making an aggregate of 2,000 sail of British shipping captured
by our little navy, with the aid of privateers and
letters-of-marque. … I have not had sufficient time in giving
this summary to ascertain, precisely, what proportion of these
2,000 vessels were captured by the United States government
ships; but, at a rough estimate, should judge one-third part
of the whole number, leaving two-thirds, or, say, 1330 sail,
to have been taken by American privateers and private-armed
vessels. I have found it difficult to ascertain the exact
number of our own vessels taken and destroyed by the English;
but, from the best information I can obtain, I should judge
they would not amount to more than 500 sail. It must be
recollected that the most of our losses occurred during the
first six months of the war. After that period, we had very
few vessels afloat, except privateers and letters-of–marque."

_G. Coggeshall,
History of American Privateers, 1812-14,
pages 394-395._

PRIVATEERS. LETTERS OF MARQUE.

"Until lately all maritime states have … been in the habit of
using privateers, which are vessels belonging to private
owners, and sailing under a commission of war [such
commissions being denominated letters of marque and reprisal]
empowering the person to whom it is granted to carry on all
forms of hostility which are permissible at sea by the usages
of war. … Universally as privateers were formerly employed,
the right to use them has now almost disappeared from the
world. It formed part of the Declaration adopted at the
Congress of Paris in 1856 with reference to Maritime Law that
'privateering is and remains abolished'; and all civilised
states have since become signataries of the Declaration,
except the United States, Spain, and Mexico. For the future
privateers can only be employed by signataries of the
Declaration of Paris during war with one of the last-mentioned
states."

_W. E. Hall,
Treatise on International Law,
part 3, chapter 7, section 180._

{2609}

"There is a distinction between a privateer and a letter of
marque in this, that the former are always equipped for the
sole purpose of war, while the latter may be a merchantman,
uniting the purposes of commerce to those of capture. In
popular language, however, all private vessels commissioned
for hostile purposes, upon the enemy's property, are called
letters of marque."

_F. H. Upton,
The Law of Nations affecting Commerce during War,
page 186._

See, also, DECLARATION OF PARIS.

PRIVILEGE OF UNION AND GENERAL PRIVILEGE OF ARAGON.

See CORTES, THE EARLY SPANISH.

PRIVILEGIUM MAJUS, THE.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1330-1364.

PRIVY COUNCIL, THE.

"It was in the reign of Henry VI. that the King's Council
first assumed the name of the 'Privy Council,' and it was also
during the minority of this King that a select Council was
gradually emerging from out of the larger body of the Privy
Council, which ultimately resulted in the institution of our
modern Cabinet.

See CABINET, THE ENGLISH.

From the accession of Henry VII. to the reign of Charles I.
the Privy Council was wholly subservient to the royal will,
and the instrument of unconstitutional and arbitrary
proceedings. The first act of the Long Parliament was to
deprive the Council of most of its judicial power, leaving,
however, its constitution and political functions unchanged.
Since the Revolution of 1688 the Privy Council has dwindled
into comparative insignificance, when contrasted with its
original authoritative position. Its judicial functions are
now restrained within very narrow limits. The only relic of
its ancient authority in criminal matters is its power of
taking examinations, and issuing commitments for treason. It
still, however, continues to exercise an original jurisdiction
in advising the Crown concerning the grant of charters, and it
has exclusively assumed the appellate jurisdiction over the
colonies and dependencies of the Crown, which formerly
appertained to the Council in Parliament. Theoretically, the
Privy Council still retains its ancient supremacy, and in a
constitutional point of view is presumed to be the only legal
and responsible Council of the Crown. … As her Majesty can
only act through her privy councillors, or upon their advice,
all the higher and more formal acts of administration must
proceed from the authority of the Sovereign in Council, and
their performance be directed by orders issued by the
Sovereign at a meeting of the Privy Council specially convened
for that purpose. No rule can be laid down defining those
political acts of the Crown which may be performed upon the
advice of particular ministers, or those which must be
exercised only 'in Council'—the distinction depends partly on
usage and partly on the wording of Acts of Parliament. … The
ancient functions of the Privy Council are now performed by
committees, excepting those formal measures which proceed from
the authority of her Majesty in Council. The acts of these
committees are designated as those of the Lords of the
Council. These Lords of Council (who are usually selected by
the Lord President of the Council, of whom more hereafter)
constitute a high court of record for the Investigation of all
offences against the Government, and of such other
extraordinary matters as may be brought before them. … If the
matter be one properly cognisable by a legal tribunal, it is
referred to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. This
committee, which is composed of the Lord President, the Lord
Chancellor, and such members of the Privy Council as from time
to time hold certain high judicial offices, has jurisdiction
in appeals from all colonial courts: it is also the supreme
court of maritime jurisdiction, and the tribunal wherein the
Crown exercises its judicial supremacy in ecclesiastical
cases. The Privy Council has also to direct local authorities
throughout the kingdom in matters affecting the preservation
of the public health. A committee of the Privy Council is also
appointed to provide 'for the general management and
superintendence of Education,' and subject to this committee
is the Science and Art Department for the United Kingdom. …
Formerly meetings of the Council were frequently held, but
they now seldom occur oftener than once in three or four
weeks, and are always convened to assemble at the royal
residence for the time being. The attendance of seven Privy
Councillors used to be regarded as the quorum necessary to
constitute a Council for ordinary purposes of state, but this
number has been diminished frequently to only three. No Privy
Councillor presumes to attend upon any meeting of the Privy
Council unless specially summoned. The last time the whole
Council was convoked was in 1839. Privy Councillors are
appointed absolutely, without patent or grant, at the
discretion of the Sovereign. Their number is unlimited. …
Since the separate existence of the Cabinet Council, meetings
of the Privy Council for purposes of deliberation have ceased
to be held. The Privy Council consists ordinarily of the
members of the Royal Family, the Archbishops of Canterbury and
York, the Bishop of London, all the Cabinet Ministers, the
Lord Chancellor, the chief officers of the Royal Household,
the Judges of the Courts of Equity, the Chief Justices of the
Courts of Common Law, and some of the Puisne Judges, the
Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Judges and the Judge-Advocate,
the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, the Speaker of the House of
Commons, the Ambassadors and the Chief Ministers
Plenipotentiary, the Governors of the chief colonies, the
Commander-in-Chief, the Vice-President of the Committee of
Council for Education, certain other officials I need not
particularise, and occasionally a Junior Lord of the
Admiralty, though it is not usual for Under Secretaries of
State or Junior Lords of the Treasury or Admiralty to have
this rank conferred upon them. A seat in the Privy Council is
sometimes given to persons retiring from the public service,
who have filled responsible situations under the Crown, as an
honorary distinction. A Privy Councillor is styled Right
Honourable, and he takes precedence of all baronets, knights,
and younger sons of viscounts and barons."

_A. C. Ewald,
The Crown and its Advisers,
lecture 2._

ALSO IN:
_A. V. Dicey,
The Privy Council._

{2610}

PROBULI, The.

A board of ten provisional councillors, instituted at Athens
during the later period of the Peloponnesian War, after the
great calamity at Syracuse. It was intended to introduce a
conservative agency into the too democratic constitution of
the state; to be "a board composed of men of mature age, who
should examine all proposals and motions, after which only
such among the latter as this board had sanctioned and
approved should come before the citizens. This new board was,
at the same time, in urgent cases itself to propose the
necessary measures."

_E. Curtius,
History of Greece,
book 4, chapter 5._

See ATHENS; B. C. 413-411.

PROBUS, Roman Emperor, A. D. 276-282.

PROBUS, Wall of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 277.

PROCESSION OF THE HOLY SPIRIT, Controversy on.

See FILIOQUE CONTROVERSY.

PROCONSUL AND PROPRÆTOR, ROMAN.

"If a Consul was pursuing his operations ever so successfully,
he was liable to be superseded at the year's close by his
successor in the Consulship: and this successor brought with
him new soldiers and new officers; everything, it would seem,
had to be done over again. This was always felt in times of
difficulty, and the constitutional usages were practically
suspended. … In the year 328 B. C. the Senate first assumed
the power of decreeing that a Consul or Prætor might be
continued in his command for several successive years, with
the title of Proconsul, or Proprætor, the power of these
officers being, within their own district, equal to the power
of the Consul or Prætor himself. The Proconsul also was
allowed to keep part of his old army, and would of course
continue his Tribunes and Centurions in office. … Almost all
the great successes of Marcellus and Scipio were gained in
Proconsular commands."

_H. G. Liddell,
History of Rome,
book 4, chapter 35._

PROCURATOR. PROCTOR.

See ROME: B. C. 31-A. D. 14.

PROHIBITIONISTS.

A party in American politics which contends for the enactment
of laws to prohibit the manufacture and sale of intoxicating
liquors.

PROMANTY, The Right of.

See GREECE: B. C. 449-445.

PROPAGANDA, The College of the.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1622.

PROPHESYINGS.

In the early part of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, among those
English reformers who were subsequently known as Puritans,
"the clergy in several dioceses set up, with encouragement
from their superiors, a certain religious exercise, called
prophesyings. They met at appointed times to expound and
discuss together particular texts of Scripture, under the
presidency of a moderator appointed by the bishop, who
finished by repeating the substance of their debate, with his
own determination upon it. These discussions were in public,
and it was contended that this sifting of the grounds of their
faith, and habitual argumentation, would both tend to edify
the people, very little acquainted as yet with their religion,
and supply in some degree the deficiencies of learning among
the pastors themselves." The prophesyings, however, were
suppressed by the queen and Archbishop Parker.

_H. Hallam,
Constitutional History of England,
chapter 4 (volume 1)._

ALSO IN:
_J. B. Marsden,
History of the Early Puritans,
chapter 4. sections 7-25._

PROPHETS, The Hebrew.

"The Hebrew word 'Nabi' is derived from the verb 'naba.' … The
root of the verb is said to be a word signifying 'to boil or
bubble over,' and is thus taken from the metaphor of a
fountain bursting forth from the heart of man, into which God
has poured it. Its actual meaning is 'to pour forth excited
utterances,' as appears from its occasional use in the sense
of 'raving.' Even to this day, in the East, the ideas of
prophet and madman are closely connected. The religious sense,
in which, with these exceptions, the word is always employed,
is that of 'speaking' or 'singing under a divine afflatus or
impulse,' to which the peculiar form of the word, as just
observed, lends itself. … It is this word that the Seventy
translated by a Greek term not of frequent usage in classical
authors, but which, through their adoption of it, has passed
into all modern European languages; namely, the word …
Prophet. … The English words 'prophet,' 'prophecy,'
'prophesying,' originally kept tolerably close to the Biblical
use of the word. The celebrated dispute about 'prophesyings,'
in the sense of 'preachings,' in the reign of Elizabeth, and
the treatise of Jeremy Taylor on 'The Liberty of Prophesying,'
i. e. the liberty of preaching, show that even down to the
seventeenth century the word was still used, as in the Bible,
for 'preaching,' or 'speaking according to the will of God.'
In the seventeenth century, however, the limitation of the
word to the sense of 'prediction' had gradually begun to
appear. … The Prophet then was 'the messenger or interpreter
of the Divine will.'"

_Dean Stanley,
Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church,
lecture 19 (volume 1)._

PROPHETS, Schools of the.

See EDUCATION, ANCIENT; JUDÆA.

PROPONTIS, The.

The small sea which intervenes between the Pontus Euxinus
(Black Sea) and the Ægean. So-called by the Greeks; now called
the Sea of Marmora.

PROPRÆTOR, Roman.

See PROCONSUL.

PROPYLÆA OF THE ACROPOLIS, The.

See ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS.

PROTECTIVE TARIFFS.

See TARIFF LEGISLATION.

PROTECTORATE, Cromwell's.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1653 (DECEMBER); 1654-1658.

PROTESTANT, Origin of the name.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1525-1529.

PROTESTANT FLAIL, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1678-1679.

----------PROTESTANT REFORMATION: Start--------

PROTESTANT REFORMATION:
Bohemia.

See BOHEMIA: A. D. 1405-1415. and after.

PROTESTANT REFORMATION:
England.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1527-1534, to 1558-1588.

PROTESTANT REFORMATION:
France.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1521-1535; and
FRANCE; A. D. 1532-1547, and after.

PROTESTANT REFORMATION:
Germany.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1516-1517, 1517, 1517-1521, 1521-1522,
1522-1525, 1525-1529, 1530-1531, 1537-1563;
also, GERMANY: A. D. 1517-1523, and 1530-1532,
to 1552-1561;

also PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1518-1572.

PROTESTANT REFORMATION:
Hungary.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1526-1567.

PROTESTANT REFORMATION:
Ireland: its failure.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1535-1553.

PROTESTANT REFORMATION:
Netherlands.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1521-1555, and after.

PROTESTANT REFORMATION:
Piedmont.

See SAVOY: A. D. 1559-1580.

PROTESTANT REFORMATION:
Scotland.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1547-1557; 1557; 1558-1560;
and 1561-1568.

PROTESTANT REFORMATION:
Sweden and Denmark.

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES; A. D. 1397-1527.

PROTESTANT REFORMATION:
Switzerland.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1519-1524;
SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1528-1531;
and GENEVA: A. D. 1536-1564.

----------PROTESTANT REFORMATION: End--------

PROTOSEVASTOS.

See SEVASTOS.

{2611}

PROVENCE:
Roman origin.

"The colonization of Narbo [Narbonne, B. C. 118] may be
considered as the epoch when the Romans finally settled the
province of southern Gallia, which they generally named Gallia
Provincia, and sometimes simply Provincia. From the time of
Augustus it was named Narbonensis Provincia, and sometimes
Gallia Braccata. It comprehended on the east all the country
between the Rhone and the Alps. The most northeastern town in
the Provincia was Geneva in the territory of the Allobroges.
Massilia, the ally of Rome, remained a free city. On the west
side of the Rhone, from the latitude of Lugdunum (Lyon), the
Cevenna, or range of the Cévennes, was the boundary of the
Provincia. … The limits of the Provincia were subsequently
extended to Carcaso (Carcassone) and Tolosa (Toulouse); and it
will appear afterwards that some additions were made to it
even on the other side of the Cévennes. This country is a part
of France which is separated by natural boundaries from the
rest of that great empire, and in climate and products it is
Italian rather than French. In the Provincia the Romans have
left some of the noblest and most enduring of their great
works."

_G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 1, chapter 22._

The Provincia of the Romans became the Provence of mediæval
times.

PROVENCE:
Cession to the Visigoths.

"The fair region which we now call Provence, nearly the
earliest formed and quite the latest lost 'Provincia' of Rome,
that region in which the Latin spirit dwelt so strongly that
the Roman nobles thought of migrating thither in 401, when
Alaric first invaded Italy, refused to submit to the rule of
the upstart barbarian [Odovacar, or Odoacer, who subverted the
Western Empire in 476]. The Provençals sent an embassy to
Constantinople to claim the protection of Zeno for the still
loyal subjects of the Empire." But Zeno "inclined to the cause
of Odovacar. The latter, however, who perhaps thought that he
had enough upon his hands without forcing his yoke on the
Provençals, made over his claim to Euric king of the
Visigoths, whose influence was at this time predominant in
Gaul."

_T. Hodgkin,
Italy and Her Invaders,
book 4, chapter 4 (volume 3)._

See, also,
ARLES: A. D. 508-510.

PROVENCE: A. D. 493-526.
Embraced in the Ostrogothic kingdom of Theodoric.

See ROME: A. D. 488-526.

PROVENCE: A. D. 536.
Cession to the Franks.

Out of the wreck of the Visigothic kingdom in Gaul, when it
was overthrown by the Frank king, Clovis, the Ostrogothic king
of Italy, Theodoric, seems to have secured Provence. Eleven
years after the death of Theodoric, and on the eve of the
subversion of his own proudly planted kingdom, in 536, his
successor Witigis, or Vitigis, bought the neutrality of the
Franks by the cession to them of all the Ostrogothic
possessions in Gaul, which were Provence and part of Dauphiné.

_T. Hodgkin,
Italy and her Invaders,
book 4, chapter 3 (volume 3),
and book 5, chapter 3 (volume 4)._

PROVENCE: A. D. 877-933.
The Kingdom.

See BURGUNDY: A. D. 843-933.

PROVENCE: A. D. 943-1092.
The Kings become Counts.
The Spanish connection.

"Southern France, … after having been the inheritance of
several of the successors of Charlemagne, was elevated in 870
to the rank of an independent kingdom, by Bozon, who was
crowned at Mantes under the title of King of Arles, and who
reduced under his dominion Provence, Dauphiny, Savoy, the
Lyonnese, and some provinces of Burgundy. The sovereignty of
this territory exchanged, in 943, the title of King for that
of Count, under Bozon II.; but the kingdom of Provence was
preserved entire, and continued in the house of Burgundy, of
which Bozon I. was the founder. This noble house became
extinct in 1092, in the person of Gilibert, who left only two
daughters, between whom his possessions were divided. One of
these, Faydide, married Alphonso, Count of Toulouse; and the
other, Douce, became the wife of Raymond Berenger, Count of
Barcelona. … The accession of Raymond Berenger, Count of
Barcelona and husband of Douce, to the throne of Provence,
gave a new direction to the national spirit, by the mixture of
the Catalans with the Provençals. … Raymond Berenger and his
successors introduced into Provence the spirit both of liberty
and chivalry, and a taste for elegance and the arts, with all
the sciences of the Arabians. The union of these noble
sentiments gave birth to that poetical spirit which shone out,
at once, over Provence and all the south of Europe, like an
electric flash in the midst of the most palpable darkness,
illuminating all things by the brightness of its flame."

_J. C. L. S. de Sismondi,
Literature of the South of Europe,
chapter 3 (volume l)._

See, also, BURGUNDY: A. D. 1032.

PROVENCE: A. D. 1179-1207.
Before the Albigensian Crusade.

"At the accession of Philippe Auguste [crowned as joint-king
of France, 1179, succeeded his father, 1180], the greater part
of the south of France was holden, not of him, but of Pedro of
Arragon, as the supreme suzerain.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1035-1258.

To the Arragonese king belonged especially the counties of
Provence, Forcalquier, Narbonne, Beziers, and Carcassonne. His
supremacy was acknowledged by the Counts of Bearn, of
Armagnac, of Bigorre, of Comminges, of Foix, of Roussillon,
and of Montpellier; while the powerful Count of Toulouse,
surrounded by his estates and vassals, maintained with
difficulty his independence against him. To these extensive
territories were given the names sometimes of Provence, in the
larger and less exact use of that word, and sometimes of
Languedoc, in allusion to the rich, harmonious, picturesque,
and flexible language which was then vernacular there.

See LANGUE D'OC.

They who used it called themselves Provençaux or Aquitanians,
to indicate that they were not Frenchmen, but members of a
different and indeed of a hostile nation. Tracing their
descent to the ancient Roman colonists and to the Gothic
invaders of Southern Gaul, the Provençaux regarded with a
mixture of contempt, of fear, and ill will, the inhabitants of
the country north of the Loire, who had made far less progress
than themselves, either in civil liberty, or in the arts and
refinements of social life. … Toulouse, Marseilles, Arles,
Beziers, and many other of their greater cities, emulous of
the Italian republics, with whom they traded and formed
alliances, were themselves living under a government which was
virtually republican. Each of these free cities being,
however, the capital of one of the greater lords among whom
the whole of Aquitaine was parceled out, became the seat of a
princely and luxurious court.
{2612}
A genial climate, a fertile soil, and an active commerce,
rendered the means of subsistence abundant even to the poor,
and gave to the rich ample resources for indulging in all the
gratifications which wealth can purchase. … They lived as if
life had been one protracted holiday. Theirs was the land of
feasting, of gallantry, and of mirth. … They refined and
enhanced the pleasures of appetite by the pleasures of the
imagination. They played with the stern features of war in
knightly tournaments. They parodied the severe toils of
justice in their courts of love. They transferred the poet's
sacred office and high vocation to the Troubadours, whose
amatory and artificial effusions posterity has willingly let
die, notwithstanding the recent labours of MM. Raynouard and
Fauriel to revive them."

_Sir J. Stephen,
Lectures on the History of France,
lecture 7._