Chapter IV: , VII (108)

"Italy had been subject to the influence of Greece, ever since
it had a history at all. … But the Hellenism of the Romans
of the present period [second century B. C.] was, in its
causes as well as its consequences, something essentially new.
The Romans began to feel the lack of a richer intellectual
life, and to be startled as it were at their own utter want of
mental culture; and, if even nations of artistic gifts, such
as the English and Germans, have not disdained in the pauses
of their own productiveness to avail themselves of the paltry
French culture for filling up the gap, it need excite no
surprise that the Italian nation now flung itself with eager
zeal on the glorious treasures as well as on the vile refuse
of the intellectual development of Hellas. But it was an
impulse still more profound and deep-rooted which carried the
Romans irresistibly into the Hellenic vortex. Hellenic
civilization still assumed that name, but it was Hellenic no
longer; it was, it fact, humanistic and cosmopolitan. It had
solved the problem of moulding a mass of different nations
into one whole completely in the field of intellect, and to a
certain degree in that of politics, and, now when the same
task on a wider scale devolved on Rome, she entered on the
possession of Hellenism along with the rest of the inheritance
of Alexander the Great. Hellenism therefore was no longer a
mere stimulus, or subordinate influence; it penetrated the
Italian nation to the very core. Of course, the vigorous home
life of Italy strove against the foreign element. It was only
after a most vehement struggle that the Italian farmer
abandoned the field to the cosmopolite of the capital; and, as
in Germany the French coat called forth the national Germanic
frock, so the reaction against Hellenism aroused in Rome a
tendency, which opposed the influence of Greece on principle
in a style to which earlier centuries were altogether
unaccustomed, and in doing so fell not unfrequently into
downright follies and absurdities. No department of human
action or thought remained unaffected by this struggle between
the new fashion and the old. Even political relations were
largely influenced by it. The whimsical project of
emancipating the Hellenes, … the kindred, likewise Hellenic,
idea of combining republics in a common opposition to kings,
and the desire of propagating Hellenic polity at the expense
of eastern despotism—which were the two principles that
regulated, for instance, the treatment of Macedonia—were
fixed ideas of the new school, just as dread of the
Carthaginians was the fixed idea of the old; and, if Cato
pushed the latter to a ridiculous excess, Philhellenism now
and then indulged in extravagances at least as foolish. …
{1640}
But the real struggle between Hellenism and its national
antagonists during the present period was carried on in the
field of faith, of manners, and of art and literature. … If
Italy still possessed—what had long been a mere antiquarian
curiosity in Hellas—a national religion, it was already
visibly beginning to be ossified into theology. The torpor
creeping over faith is nowhere perhaps so distinctly apparent
as in the alterations in the economy of divine service and of
the priesthood. The public service of the gods became not only
more tedious, but above all more and more costly. … An augur
like Lucius Paullus, who regarded the priesthood as a science
and not as a mere title, was already a rare exception; and
could not but be so, when the government more and more openly
and unhesitatingly employed the auspices for the
accomplishment of its political designs, or, in other words,
treated the national religion in accordance with the view of
Polybius as a superstition useful for imposing on the public
at large. Where the way was thus paved, the Hellenistic
irreligious spirit found free course. In connection with the
incipient taste for art the sacred images of the gods began
even in Cato's time to be employed, like other furniture, to
embellish the chambers of the rich. More dangerous wounds were
inflicted on religion by the rising literature. … Thus the
old national religion was visibly on the decline; and, as the
great trees of the primeval forest were uprooted, the soil
became covered with a rank growth of thorns and briars and
with weeds that had never been seen before. Native
superstitions and foreign impostures of the most various hues
mingled, competed and conflicted with each other. … The
Hellenism of that epoch, already denationalized and pervaded
by Oriental mysticism, introduced not only unbelief but also
superstition in its most offensive and dangerous forms to
Italy; and these vagaries, moreover, had a special charm,
precisely because they were foreign. … Rites of the most
abominable character came to the knowledge of the Roman
authorities: a secret nocturnal festival in honour of the god
Bacchus had been first introduced into Etruria by a Greek
priest, and spreading like a cancer, had rapidly reached Rome
and propagated itself over all Italy, everywhere corrupting
families and giving rise to the most heinous crimes,
unparalleled unchastity, falsifying of testaments, and
murdering by poison. More than 7,000 men were sentenced to
punishment, most of them to death, on this account, and
rigorous enactments were issued as to the future. … The ties
of family life became relaxed with fearful rapidity. The evil
of grisettes and boy-favourites spread like a pestilence. …
Luxury prevailed more and more in dress, ornaments and
furniture, in the buildings and on the tables. Especially
after the expedition to Asia Minor, which took place in 564,
[B. C. 190] Asiatico-Hellenic luxury, such as prevailed at
Ephesus and Alexandria, transferred its empty refinement and
its petty trifling, destructive alike of money, time, and
pleasure, to Rome. … As a matter of course, this revolution
in life and manners brought an economic revolution in its
train. Residence in the capital became more and more coveted
as well as more costly. Rents rose to an unexampled height.
Extravagant prices were paid for the new articles of luxury.
… The influences which stimulated the growth of Roman
literature were of a character altogether peculiar and hardly
paralleled in any other nation. … By means of the Italian
slaves and freedmen, a very large portion of whom were Greek
or half Greek by birth, the Greek language and Greek knowledge
to a certain extent reached even the lower ranks of the
population, especially in the capital. The comedies of this
period indicate that even the humbler classes of the capital
were familiar with a sort of Latin, which could no more be
properly understood without a knowledge of Greek than Sterne's
English or Wieland's German without a knowledge of French. Men
of senatorial families, however, not only addressed a Greek
audience in Greek, but even published their speeches. …
Under the influence of such circumstances Roman education
developed itself. It is a mistaken opinion, that antiquity was
materially inferior to our own times in the general diffusion
of elementary attainments. Even among the lower classes and
slaves there was considerable knowledge of reading, writing,
and counting. … Elementary instruction, as well us
instruction in Greek, must have been long ere this period
imparted to a very considerable extent in Rome. But the epoch
now before us initiated an education, the aim of which was to
communicate not merely an outward expertness, but a real
mental culture. The internal decomposition of Italian
nationality had already, particularly in the aristocracy,
advanced so far as to render the substitution of a broader
human culture for that nationality inevitable: and the craving
after a more advanced civilization was already powerfully
stirring men's minds. The study of the Greek language as it
were spontaneously met this craving. The classical literature
of Greece, the Iliad and still more the Odyssey, had all along
formed the basis of instruction; the overflowing treasures of
Hellenic art and science were already by this means spread
before the eyes of the Italians. Without any outward
revolution, strictly speaking, in the character of instruction
the natural result was, that the empirical study of the
language became converted into a higher study of the
literature; that the general culture connected with such
literary studies was communicated in increased measure to the
scholars; and that these availed themselves of the knowledge
thus acquired to dive into that Greek literature which most
powerfully influenced the spirit of the age—the tragedies of
Euripides and the comedies of Menander. In a similar way
greater importance came to be attached to the study of Latin.
The higher society of Rome began to feel the need, if not of
exchanging their mother-tongue for Greek, at least of refining
it and adapting it to the changed state of culture. … But a
Latin culture presupposed a literature, and no such literature
existed in Rome. … The Romans desired a theatre, but the
pieces were wanting. On these elements Roman literature was
based; and its defective character was from the first and
necessarily the result of such an origin. … Roman poetry in
particular had its immediate origin not in the inward impulse
of the poet, but in the outward demands of the school, which
needed Latin manuals, and of the stage, which needed Latin
dramas. Now both institutions—the school and the stage—were
thoroughly anti-Roman and revolutionary. … The school and
the theatre became the most effective levers in the hands of
the new spirit of the age, and all the more so that they used
the Latin tongue.
{1641}
Men might perhaps speak and write Greek, and yet not cease to
be Romans; but in this case they were in the habit of speaking
in the Roman language, while the whole inward being and life
were Greek. It is one of the most pleasing, but it is one of
the most remarkable and in a historical point of view most
instructive, facts in this brilliant era of Roman
conservatism, that during its course Hellenism struck root in
the whole field of intellect not immediately political, and
that the school-master and the maître de plaisir of the great
public in close alliance created a Roman literature."

_T. Mommsen,
The History of Rome,
book 3, chapter 13 (volume 2)._

Panætius was the founder of "that Roman Stoicism which plays
so prominent a part in the history of the Empire. He came from
Rhodes, and was a pupil of Diogenes at Athens. The most
important part of his life was, however, spent at Rome, in the
house of Scipio Æmilianus, the centre of the Scipionic circle,
where he trained up a number of Roman nobles to understand and
to adopt his views. He seems to have taken the place of
Polybius, and to have accompanied Scipio in his tour to the
East (143 B. C.). He died as head of the Stoic school in
Athens about 110 B. C. This was the man who, under the
influence of the age, really modified the rigid tenets of his
sect to make it the practical rule of life for statesmen,
politicians, magnates, who had no time to sit all day and
dispute, but who required something better than effete
polytheism to give them dignity in their leisure, and
steadfastness in the day of trial. … With the pupils of
Panætius begins the long roll of Roman Stoics. … Here then,
after all the dissolute and disintegrating influences of
Hellenism,—its comœdia palliata, its parasites, its panders,
its minions, its chicanery, its mendacity—had produced their
terrible effect, came an antidote which, above all the human
influences we know, purified and ennobled the world. It
affected, unfortunately, only the higher classes at Rome; and
even among them, as among any of the lower classes that
speculated at all, it had as a dangerous rival that cheap and
vulgar Epicureanism, which puffs up common natures with the
belief that their trivial and coarse reflections have some
philosophic basis, and can be defended with subtle arguments.
But among the best of the Romans Hellenism produced a type
seldom excelled in the world's history, a type as superior to
the old Roman model as the nobleman is to the burgher in most
countries—a type we see in Rutilius Rufus, as compared with
the elder Cato. … It was in this way that Hellenistic
philosophy made itself a home in Italy, and acquired pupils
who in the next generation became masters in their way, and
showed in Cicero and Lucretius no mean rivals of the
contemporary Greek. … Till the poem of Lucretius and the
works of Cicero, we may say nothing in Latin worth reading
existed on the subject. Whoever wanted to study philosophy,
therefore, down to that time (60 B. C.) studied it in Greek.
Nearly the same thing may be said of the arts of architecture,
painting, and sculpture. There were indeed distinctly Roman
features in architecture, but they were mere matters of
building, and whatever was done in the way of design, in the
way of adding beauty to strength, was done wholly under the
advice and direction of Greeks. The subservience to Hellenism
in the way of internal household ornament was even more
complete. … And with the ornaments of the house, the proper
serving of the house, especially the more delicate
departments—the cooking of state dinners, the attendance upon
guests, the care of the great man's intimate comforts—could
only be done fashionably by Greek slaves. … But of course
these lower sides of Hellenism had no more potent effect in
civilising Rome than the employing of French cooks and valets
and the purchase of French ornaments and furniture had in
improving our grandfathers. Much more serious was the
acknowledged supremacy of the Greeks in literature of all
kinds, and still more their insistence that this superiority
depended mainly upon a careful system of intellectual
education. … This is the point where Polybius, after his
seventeen years' experience of Roman life, finds the capital
flaw in the conduct of public affairs. In every Hellenistic
state, he says, nothing engrosses the attention of legislators
more than the question of education, whereas at Rome a most
moral and serious government leaves the training of the young
to the mistakes and hazards of private enterprise. That this
was a grave blunder as regards the lower classes is probably
true. … But when Rome grew from a city controlling Italy to
an empire directing the world, such men as Æmilius Paullus saw
plainly that they must do something more to fit their children
for the splendid position they had themselves attained, and so
they were obliged to keep foreign teachers of literature and
art in their houses as private tutors. The highest class of
these private tutors was that of the philosophers, whom we
have considered, and while the State set itself against their
public establishments, great men in the State openly
encouraged them and kept them in their houses. … As regards
literature, however, in the close of the second century B. C.
a change was visible, which announced the new and marvellous
results of the first. … Even in letters Roman culture began
to take its place beside Greek, and the whole civilised world
was divided into those who knew Greek letters and those who
knew Roman only. There was no antagonism in spirit between
them, for the Romans never ceased to venerate Greek letters or
to prize a knowledge of that language. But of course there
were great domains in the West beyond the influence of the
most western Greeks, even of Massilia, where the first higher
civilisation introduced was with the Roman legions and
traders, and where culture assumed permanently a Latin form.
In the East, though the Romans asserted themselves as
conquerors, they always condescended to use Greek, and there
were prætors proud to give their decisions at Roman assize
courts in that language."

_J. P. Mahaffy,
The Greek World under Roman Sway,
chapter 5._

HELLENION, The.

See NAUKRATIS.

HELLESPONT, The.

The ancient Greek name of what is now called the straits of
The Dardanelles, the channel which unites the Sea of Marmora
with the Ægean. The name (Sea of Helle) came from the myth of
Helle, who was said to have been drowned in these waters.

HELLESPONTINE SIBYL.

See SIBYLS.

HELLULAND.

See AMERICA: 10TH-11TH CENTURIES.

HELOTS.

See SPARTA: THE CITY.

HELVECONES, The.

See LYGIANS.

{1642}

HELVETIAN REPUBLIC, The.

Switzerland is sometimes called the Helvetian Republic, for no
better reason than is found in the fact that the country
occupied by the Helvetii of Cæsar is embraced in the modern
Swiss Confederacy. But the original confederation, out of
which grew the federal republic of Switzerland, did not touch
Helvetian ground.

See SWITZERLAND: THE THREE FOREST CANTONS,
and A. D. 1332-1460.

HELVETIC REPUBLIC OF 1798, The.

See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1792-1798.

HELVETII, The arrested migration of the.

"The Helvetii, who inhabited a great part of modern
Switzerland, had grown impatient of the narrow limits in which
they were crowded together, and harassed at the same time by
the encroachments of the advancing German tide. The Alps and
Jura formed barriers to their diffusion on the south and west,
and the population thus confined outgrew the scanty means of
support afforded by its mountain valleys. … The Helvetii
determined to force their way through the country of the
Allobroges, and to trust either to arms or persuasion to
obtain a passage through the [Roman] province and across the
Rhone into the centre of Gaul. … Having completed their
preparations, [they] appointed the 28th day of March [B. C.
58] for the meeting of their combined forces at the western
outlet of the Lake Lemanus. The whole population of the
assembled tribes amounted to 368,000 souls, including the
women and children; the number that bore arms was 92,000. They
cut themselves off from the means of retreat by giving
ruthlessly to the flames every city and village of their land;
twelve of one class and four hundred of the other were thus
sacrificed, and with them all their superfluous stores, their
furniture, arms and implements." When the news of this
portentous movement reached Rome, Cæsar, then lately appointed
to the government of the two Gauls, was raising levies, but
had no force ready for the field. He flew to the scene in
person, making the journey from Rome to Geneva in eight days.
At Geneva, the frontier town of the conquered Allobroges, the
Romans had a garrison, and Cæsar quickly gathered to that
point the one legion stationed in the province. Breaking down
the bridge which had spanned the river and constructing with
characteristic energy a ditch and rampart from the outlet of
the lake to the gorge of the Jura, he held the passage of the
river with his single legion and forced the migratory horde to
move off by the difficult route down the right bank of the
Rhone. This accomplished, Cæsar hastened back to Italy, got
five legions together, led them over the Cottian Alps, crossed
the Rhone above Lyons, and caught up with the Helvetii before
the last of their cumbrous train had got beyond the Saone.
Attacking and cutting to pieces this rear-guard (it was the
tribe of the Tigurini, which the Romans had encountered
disastrously half a century before), he bridged the Saone and
crossed it to pursue the main body of the enemy. For many days
he followed them, refusing to give battle to the great
barbarian army until he saw the moment opportune. His blow was
struck at last in the neighborhood of the city of Bibracte,
the capital of the Ædui—modern Autun. The defeat of the
Helvetii was complete, and, although a great body of them
escaped, they were set upon by the Gauls of the country and
were soon glad to surrender themselves unconditionally to the
Roman proconsul. Cæsar compelled them—110,000 survivors, of
the 368,000 who left Switzerland in the spring—to go back to
their mountains and rebuild and reoccupy the homes they had
destroyed.

_C. Merivale,
History of the Romans,
chapter 6 (volume 1)._

ALSO IN:
_Cæsar,
Gallic Wars,
chapters 1-29._

_G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 4, chapter 1._

_Napoleon III.,
History of Julius Cæsar,
book 3, chapter 3 (volume 2)_.

HELVII, The.

The Helvii were a tribe of Gauls whose country was between the
Rhone and the Cevennes, in the modern department of the
Ardêche.

_G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 4, chapter 17._

HENGESTESDUN, Battle of.

Defeat of the Danes and Welsh by Ecgbehrt, the West Saxon
king, A. D. 835.

HENNERSDORF, Battle of (1745).

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1744-1745.

HENOTICON OF ZENO, The.

See NESTORIAN AND MONOPHYSITE CONTROVERSY.

HENRICIANS.

See PETROBRUSIANS.

HENRY,
Latin Emperor at Constantinople (Romania), A. D. 1206-1216.

Henry (of Corinthia), King of Bohemia, 1307-1310.

Henry, King of Navarre, 1270-1274.

Henry, King of Portugal, 1578-1580.

Henry, Count of Portugal, 1093-1112.

Henry (called the Lion), The ruin of.

See SAXONY: A. D. 1178-1183.

Henry (called the Navigator), Prince, The explorations of.

See PORTUGAL: A. D. 1415-1460.

Henry (called the Proud), The fall of.

See GUELFS AND GHIBELLINES.

Henry I., King of Castile, 1214-1217.

Henry I., King of England, 1100-1135.

Henry I., King of France, 1031-1060.

Henry I. (called The Fowler), King of the East Franks
(Germany), 919-936.

Henry II.,
Emperor, A. D. 1014-1024;
King of the East Franks (Germany), 1002-1024;
King of Italy, 1004-1024.

Henry II. (of Trastamare),
King of Castile and Leon, 1369-1379.

Henry II. (first of the Plantagenets),
King of England, 1154-1189.

Henry II., King of France, 1547-1559.

Henry III., Emperor, King of Germany,
and King of Burgundy, 1089-1056.

Henry III., King of Castile and Leon, 1390-1407.

Henry III., King of England, 1216-1272.

Henry III.,
King of France (the last of the Valois), 1574-1589;
King of Poland, 1573-1574.

Henry IV.,
Emperor, 1077-1106;
King of Germany, 1056-1106.

Henry IV., King of Castile and Leon, 1454-1474.

Henry IV., King of England
(first of the Lancastrian royal line), 1399-1413.

Henry IV. (called the Great), King of France and Navarre
(the first of the Bourbon kings), 1589-1610.
Abjuration.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1591-1593.

Assassination.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1599-1610.

Henry V.,
Emperor, 1112-1125;
King of Germany, 1106-1125.

Henry V., King of England, 1413-1422.

Henry VI.,
King of Germany, 1190-1197;
Emperor, 1191-1197;
King of Sicily, 1194-1197.

Henry VI., King of England, 1422-1461.

Henry VII. (of Luxemburg),
King of Germany, 1308-1313;
King of Italy and Emperor, 1312-1313.

Henry VII., King of England, 1485-1509.

Henry VIII., King of England, 1509-1547.

HENRY, Patrick,
The Parson's cause.

See VIRGINIA: A. D. 1763.

{1643}

HENRY, Patrick:
The American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1765
RECEPTION OF THE NEWS OF THE STAMP ACT, 1774 (SEPTEMBER),
1775 (APRIL-JUNE), 1778-1779 CLARKE'S CONQUEST;
also, VIRGINIA: A. D. 1776.

Opposition to the Federal Constitution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1787-1789.

HENRY, Fort, Capture of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY: KENTUCKY—TENNESSEE).

HEPTANOMIS, The.

The northern district of Upper Egypt, embracing seven
provinces, or nomes; whence its name.

HEPTARCHY, The so-called Saxon.

See ENGLAND: 7th CENTURY.

HERACLEA.
The earliest capital of the Venetians.

See VENICE: A. D. 697-810.

HERACLEA, Battle of (B. C. 280).

See ROME: B. C. 282-275.

HERACLEA PONTICA,
Siege of.

Heraclea, a flourishing town of Greek origin on the Phrygian
coast, called Heraclea Pontica to distinguish it from other
towns of like name, was besieged for some two years by the
Romans in the Third Mithridatic War. It was surrendered
through treachery, B. C. 70, and suffered so greatly from the
ensuing pillage and massacre that it never recovered. The
Roman commander, Cotta, was afterwards prosecuted at Rome for
appropriating the plunder of Heraclea, which included a famous
statue of Hercules, with a golden club.

_G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 3, chapter 5._

HERACLEIDÆ, OR HERAKLEIDS, The.

Among the ancient Greeks the reputed descendants of the
demi-god hero, Herakles, or Hercules, were very numerous.
"Distinguished families are everywhere to be traced who bear
his patronymic and glory in the belief that they are his
descendants. Among Achæans, Kadmeians, and Dorians, Hêraklês
is venerated: the latter especially treat him as their
principal hero—the Patron Hero-God of the race: the
Hêrakleids form among all Dorians a privileged gens, in which
at Sparta the special lineage of the two kings was included."

_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 1, chapter 4 (volume 1)._

"The most important, and the most fertile in consequences, of
all the migrations of Grecian races, and which continued even
to the latest periods to exert its influence upon the Greek
character, was the expedition of the Dorians into
Peloponnesus. … The traditionary name of this expedition is
'the Return of the Descendants of Hercules' [or 'the Return of
the Heraclidæ']. Hercules, the son of Zeus, is (even in the
Iliad), both by birth and destiny, the hereditary prince of
Tiryns and Mycenæ, and ruler of the surrounding nations. But
through some evil chance Eurystheus obtained the precedency
and the son of Zeus was compelled to serve him. Nevertheless
he is represented as having bequeathed to his descendants his
claims to the dominion of Peloponnesus, which they afterwards
made good in conjunction with the Dorians; Hercules having
also performed such actions in behalf of this race that his
descendants were always entitled to the possession of
one-third of the territory. The heroic life of Hercules was
therefore the mythical title, through which the Dorians were
made to appear, not as unjustly invading, but merely as
reconquering, a country which had belonged to their princes in
former times."

_C. O. Müller,
History and Antiquity of the Doric Race,
book 1, chapter 3._

See, also, DORIANS AND IONIANS.

HERACLEIDÆ OF LYDIA.

The second dynasty of the kings of Lydia—so-called by the
Greeks as reputed descendants of the sun-god. The dynasty is
represented as ending with Candaules.

_M. Duncker,
History of Antiquity,
book 4, chapter 17._

HERACLEONAS, Roman Emperor (Eastern), A. D. 641.

HERACLIUS I., Roman Emperor (Eastern), A. D. 610-641.

----------HERAT: Start--------

HERAT: B. C. 330.
Founding of the city by Alexander the Great.

See MACEDONIA: B. C. 330-323.

HERAT: A. D. 1221.
Destruction by the Mongols.

See KHORASSAN: A. D. 1220-1221.

----------HERAT: End--------

HERCTÉ, Mount, Hamilcar on.

See PUNIC WAR, THE FIRST.

HERCULANEUM.

See POMPEII.

HERCULIANS AND JOVIANS.

See PRÆTORIAN GUARDS: A. D. 312.

HERCYNIAN FOREST, The.

"The Hercynian Forest was known by report to Eratosthenes and
some other Greeks, under the name Orcynia. The width of this
forest, as Caesar says (B. G. vi. 25), was nine days' journey
to a man without any incumbrance. It commenced at the
territory of the Helvetii [ Switzerland] … and following the
straight course of the Dunube reached to the country of the
Daci and the Anartes. Here it turned to the left in different
directions from the river, and extended to the territory of
many nations. No man of western Germany could affirm that he
had reached the eastern termination of the forest even after a
journey of six days, nor that he had heard where it did
terminate. This is all that Caesar knew of this great forest.
… The nine days' journey, which measures the width of the
Hercynian forest, is the width from south to north; and if we
assume this width to be estimated at the western end of the
Hercynia, which part would be the best known, it would
correspond to the Schwarzwald and Odenwald, which extend on
the east side of the Rhine from the neighbourhood of Bâle
nearly as far north as Frankfort on the Main. The eastern
parts of the forest would extend on the north side of the
Danube along the Rauhe Alp and the Boehmerwald and still
farther east. Caesar mentions another German forest named
Bacenis (B. G. vi. 10), but all that he could say of it is
this: it was a forest of boundless extent, and it separated
the Suevi and the Cherusci; from which we may conclude that it
is represented by the Thüringerwald, Erzgebirge,
Riesengebirge, and the mountain ranges farther east, which
separate the basin of the Danube from the basins of the Oder
and the Vistula."

_G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 4, chapter 2._

HERETOGA.

See EALDORMAN.

HEREWARD'S CAMP IN THE FENS.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1069-1071.

HERIBANN.

See SLAVERY, MEDIÆVAL: FRANCE.

HERKIMER, General, and the Battle of Oriskany.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1777 (JULY-OCTOBER).

HERMÆ AT ATHENS, Mutilation of the.

See ATHENS: B. C. 415.

{1644}

HERMÆAN PROMONTORY.

The ancient name of the north-eastern horn of the Gulf of
Tunis, now called Cape Bon. It was the limit fixed by the old
treaties between Carthage and Rome, beyond which Roman ships
must not go.

_R. B. Smith,
Carthage and the Carthaginians,
chapter 5._

HERMANDAD, The.

See HOLY BROTHERHOOD.

HERMANRIC, OR ERMANARIC, The empire of.

See GOTHS: A. D. 350-375; and 376.

HERMANSTADT,
Battle of (1442).

See TURKS: A. D. 1402-1451.

(Or Schellenberg,) Battle of (1599).

See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES:
14TH-18TH CENTURIES (ROUMANIA, &c.).

HERMINSAULE, The.

See SAXONS: A.D. 772-804.

HERMIONES, The.

See GERMANY: As KNOWN TO TACITUS.

HERMITS.

See ANCHORITES.

HERMONTHIS.

See ON.

HERMUNDURI, The.

Among the German tribes of the time of Tacitus, "a people
loyal to Rome. Consequently they, alone of the Germans, trade
not merely on the banks of the river, but far inland, and in
the most flourishing colony of the province of Rætia.
Everywhere they are allowed to pass without a guard; and while
to the other tribes we display only our arms and our camps, to
them we have thrown open our houses and country-seats, which
they do not covet."

_Tacitus,
Minor Works, translated by Church and Brodribb:
The Germany._

"The settlements of the Hermunduri must have been in Bavaria,
and seem to have stretched from Ratisbon, northwards, as far
as Bohemia and Saxony."

_Tacitus,
Minor Works, translated by Church and Brodribb:
The Germany.
Geography notes._

HERNICANS, The.

A Sabine tribe, who anciently occupied a valley in the Lower
Appenines, between the Anio and the Trerus, and who were
leagued with the Romans and the Latins against the Volscians
and the Æquians.

_H. G. Liddell,
History of Rome,
book 2, chapter 6._

HERODEANS, The.

See JEWS: B. C. 40-A. D. 44.
REIGN OF THE HERODEANS.

HEROIC AGE OF GREECE.

See GREECE: THE HEROES.

HEROÖPOLIS.

See JEWS: THE ROUTE OF THE EXODUS.

HERRINGS, The Battle of the (1429).

In February, 1429, while the English still held their ground
in France, and while the Duke of Bedford was besieging Orleans
[see FRANCE: A. D. 1429-1431], a large convoy of Lenten
provisions, salted herring in the main, was sent away from
Paris for the English army. It was under the escort of Sir
John Fastolfe, with 1,500 men. At Rouvray en Beausse the
convoy was attacked by 5,000 French cavalry, including the
best knights and warriors of the kingdom. The English
entrenched themselves behind their wagons and repelled the
attack, with great slaughter and humiliation of the French
chivalry; but in the mêlée the red-herrings were scattered
thickly over the field. This caused the encounter to be named
the Battle of the Herrings.

_C. M. Yonge,
Cameos from English History,
2d series, chapter 35._

HERRNHUT.

See MORAVIAN OR BOHEMIAN BRETHREN.

HERULI, The.

The Heruli were a people closely associated with the Goths in
their history and undoubtedly akin to them in blood. The great
piratical expedition of A. D. 267 from the Crimea, which
struck Athens, was made up of Herules as well as Goths. The
Heruli passed with the Goths under the yoke of the Huns. After
the breaking up of the empire of Attila, they were found
occupying the region of modern Hungary which is between the
Carpathians, the upper Theiss, and the Danube. The Herules
were numerous among the barbarian auxiliaries of the Roman
army in the last days of the empire.

_H. Bradley,
Story of the Goths._

ALSO IN:
_T. Hodgkin,
Italy and Her Invaders,
book 3, chapter 8 (volume 2)._

----------HERZEGOVINA: Start--------

HERZEGOVINA: A. D. 1875-1876.
Revolt against Turkish rule.
Interposition of the Powers.

See TURKS: A. D. 1861-1877.

HERZEGOVINA: A. D. 1878.
Given over to Austria by the Treaty of Berlin.

See TURKS: A. D. 1878.

----------HERZEGOVINA: End--------

HESSE: A. D. 1866.
Extinction of the electorate.
Absorption by Prussia.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1866.

HESSIANS, The, in the American War.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
A. D. 1776 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY).

HESTIASIS.

The feasting of the tribes at Athens.

See LITURGIES.

HESYCHASTS, The.

See MYSTICISM.

HETÆRIES, Ancient.

Political clubs "which were habitual and notorious at Athens;
associations, bound together by oath, among the wealthy
citizens, partly for purposes of amusement, but chiefly
pledging the members to stand by each other in objects of
political ambition, in judicial trials, in accusation or
defence of official men after the period of office had
expired, in carrying points through the public assembly, &c.
… They furnished, when taken together, a formidable
anti-popular force."

_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapter 62 (volume 7)._

ALSO IN:
_G. F. Schömann,
Antiquities of Greece: The State,
part 3, chapter 3._

HETAIRA. HETAIRISTS, Modern.

See GREECE: A. D. 1821-1829.

HETMAN.

See POLAND: A. D. 1668-1696;
also, COSSACKS.

HEXHAM, Battle of (1464).

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1455-1471.

HEYDUCS.

Servian Christians who, in the earlier period of the Turkish
domination, fled into the forest and became outlaws and
robbers were called Heyducs.

_L. Ranke,
History of Servia,
chapter 3._

HIAWATHA AND THE IROQUOIS CONFEDERATION.

See IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.

HIBERNIA.

See IRELAND.

HICKS PASHA, Destruction of the army of (1883).

See EGYPT: A. D. 1870-1883.

HIDALGO.

"Originally written 'fijodalgo,' son of something. Later
applied to gentlemen, country gentlemen perhaps more
particularly. … In the Dic. Univ. authorities are quoted
showing that the word 'hidalgo' originated with the Roman
colonists of Spain, called 'Italicos,' who were exempt from
imposts. Hence those enjoying similar benefits were called
'Italicos,' which word in lapse of time became 'hidalgo.'"

_H. H. Bancroft,
History of the Pacific States,
volume 1, page 252, foot-note._

HIDATSA INDIANS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: HIDATSA.

{1645}

HIDE OF LAND. CARUCATE. VIRGATE.

"In the [Hundred] rolls for Huntingdonshire [England] a series
of entries occurs, describing, contrary to the usual practice
of the compilers, the number of acres in a virgate, and the
number of virgates in a hide, in several manors. … They show
clearly—(1) That the bundle of scattered strips called a
virgate did not always contain the same number of acres. (2)
That the hide did not always contain the same number of
virgates. But at the same time it is evident that the hide in
Huntingdonshire most often contained 120 acres or thereabouts.
… We may gather from the instances given in the Hundred
Rolls for Huntingdonshire, that the 'normal' hide consisted as
a rule of four virgates of about thirty acres each. The really
important consequence resulting from this is the recognition
of the fact that as the virgate was a bundle of so many
scattered strips in the open fields, the hide, so far as it
consisted of actual virgates in villenage, was also a
bundle—a compound and fourfold bundle—of scattered strips in
the open fields. … A trace at least of the original reason
of the varying contents and relations of the hide and virgate
is to be found in the Hundred Rolls, as, indeed, almost
everywhere else, in the use of another word in the place of
hide, when, instead of the anciently assessed hidage of a
manor, its modern actual taxable value is examined into and
expressed. This new word is 'carucate'—'the land of a plough
or plough team,'—'caruca' being the mediæval Latin term for
both plough and plough team. … In some cases the carucate
seems to be identical with the normal hide of 120 acres, but
other instances show that the carucate varied in area. It is
the land cultivated by a plough team; varying in acreage,
therefore, according to the lightness or heaviness of the
soil, and according to the strength of the team. … In
pastoral districts of England and Wales the Roman tribute may
possibly have been, if not a hide from each plough team, a
hide from every family holding cattle. … The supposition of
such an origin of the connexion of the word 'hide' with the
'land of a family,' or of a plough team, is mere conjecture;
but the fact of the connexion is clear."

_F. Seebohm,
English Village Community,
chapter 2, section 4,
and chapter 10, section 6._

ALSO IN:
_J. M. Kemble,
The Saxons in England,
book 1, chapter 4._

See, also, MANORS.

HIERATIC WRITING.

See HIEROGLYPHICS.

HIERODULI, The.

In some of the early Greek communities, the Hieroduli, or
ministers of the gods, "formed a class of persons bound to
certain services, duties, or contributions to the temple of
some god, and … sometimes dwelt in the position of serfs on
the sacred ground. They appear in considerable numbers, and as
an integral part of the population only in Asia, as, e. g., at
Comana in Cappadocia, where in Strabo's time there were more
than 6,000 of them attached to the temple of the goddess Ma,
who was named by the Greeks Enyo, and by the Romans Bellona.
In Sicily too the Erycinian Aphrodite had numerous ministers,
whom Cicero calls Venerii, and classes with the ministers of
Mars (Martiales) at Larinum in South Italy. In Greece we may
consider the Craugallidæ as Hieroduli of the Delphian Apollo.
They belonged apparently to the race of Dryopes, who are said
to have been at some former time conquered by Heracles, and
dedicated by him to the god. The greater part of them, we are
told, were sent at the command of Apollo to the Peloponnese,
whilst the Craugallidæ remained behind. … At Corinth too
there were numerous Hieroduli attached to Aphrodite, some of
whom were women, who lived as Hetæræ and paid a certain tax
from their earnings to the goddess."

_G. Schömann,
Antiquities of Greece: The State,
part 2, chapter 4._

See, also, DORIS AND DRYOPIS.

HIEROGLYPHICS, Egyptian.

"The Greeks gave the name of Hieroglyphics, that is, 'Sacred
Sculpture,' to the national writing of the Egyptians, composed
entirely of pictures of natural objects. Although very
inapplicable, this name has been adopted by modern writers,
and has been so completely accepted and used that it cannot
now be replaced by a more appropriate appellation. … For a
long series of ages the decipherment of the hieroglyphics, for
which the classical writers furnish no assistance, remained a
hopeless mystery. The acute genius of a Frenchman at last
succeeded, not fifty years since, in lifting the veil. By a
prodigious effort of induction, and almost divination, Jean
François Champollion, who was born at Figeac (Lot) on the 23d
of December, 1790, and died at Paris on the 4th of March,
1832, made the greatest discovery of the nineteenth century in
the domain of historical science, and succeeded in fixing on a
solid basis the principle of reading hieroglyphics. Numerous
scholars have followed the path opened by him. … It would
… be very far from the truth to regard hieroglyphics as
always, or even generally, symbolical. No doubt there are
symbolical characters among them, generally easy to
understand; as also there are, and in very great number,
figurative characters directly representing the object to be
designated; but the majority of the signs found in every
hieroglyphic text are characters purely phonetic; that is,
representing either syllables (and these are so varied as to
offer sometimes serious difficulties) or the letters of an
only moderately complicated alphabet. These letters are also
pictures of objects, but of objects or animals whose Egyptian
name commenced with the letter in question, while also the
syllabic characters (true rebusses) represented objects
designated by that syllable."

_F. Lenormant and E. Chevallier.
Manual of the Ancient History of the East,
book 3, chapter 5 (volume 1)._

"The system of writing employed by the people called Egyptians
was probably entirely pictorial either at the time when they
first arrived in Egypt, or during the time that they still
lived in their original home. We, however, know of no
inscription in which pictorial characters alone are used, for
the earliest specimens of their writing known to us contain
alphabetical characters. The Egyptians had three kinds of
writing—Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, and Demotic. …
Hieroglyphics … were commonly employed for inscriptions upon
temples, tombs, coffins, statues, and stelæ, and many copies
of the Book of the Dead were written in them. The earliest
hieroglyphic inscription at present known is found on the
monument of Shera, parts of which are preserved in the
Ashmolean Museum at Oxford and in the Gîzeh Museum; it dates
from the IInd dynasty. Hieroglyphics were used in Egypt for
writing the names of Roman Emperors and for religious purposes
until the third century after Christ, at least.
{1646}
Hieratic … was a style of cursive writing much used by the
priests in copying literary compositions on papyrus; during
the XIth or XIIth dynasty wooden coffins were inscribed in
hieratic with religious texts. The oldest document in hieratic
is the famous Prisse papyrus, which records the counsels of
Ptah-hetep to his son; the composition itself is about a
thousand years older than this papyrus, which was probably
inscribed about the XIth dynasty. Drafts of inscriptions were
written upon flakes of calcareous stone in hieratic, and at a
comparatively early date hieratic was used in writing copies
of the Book of the Dead. Hieratic was used until about the
fourth century after Christ. Demotic … is a purely
conventional modification of hieratic characters, which
preserve little of their original form, and was used for
social and business purposes; in the early days of Egyptian
decipherment it was called enchorial. … The Demotic writing
appears to have come into use about B. C. 900, and it survived
until about the fourth century after Christ. In the time of
the Ptolemies three kinds of writing were inscribed side by
side upon documents of public importance, hieroglyphic, Greek,
and Demotic; examples are the stele of Canopus, set up in the
ninth year of the reign of Ptolemy III. Euergetes I., B. C.
247-222, at Canopus, to record the benefits which this king
had conferred upon his country, and the famous Rosetta Stone,
set up at Rosetta in the eighth year of the reign of Ptolemy
V. Epiphanes (B. C. 205-182), likewise to commemorate the
benefits conferred upon Egypt by himself and his family, etc.
… A century or two after the Christian era Greek had
obtained such a hold upon the inhabitants of Egypt, that the
native Christian population, the disciples and followers of
Saint Mark, were obliged to use the Greek alphabet to write
down the Egyptian, that is to say Coptic, translation of the
books of the Old and New Testaments, but they borrowed six
signs from the demotic forms of ancient Egyptian characters to
express the sounds which they found unrepresented in Greek."

_E. A. Wallis Budge,
The Mummy,
pages 353-354._

See, also, ROSETTA STONE.

HIEROGLYPHICS, Mexican (so-called).

See AZTEC AND MAYA PICTURE-WRITING.

HIERONYMITES, The.

"A number of solitaries residing among the mountains of Spain,
Portugal, and Italy, gradually formed into a community, and
called themselves Hieronymites, either because they had
compiled their Rule from the writings of St. Jerome, or
because, adopting the rule of St. Augustine, they had taken
St. Jerome for their patron. … The community was approved by
Gregory XI., in 1374. The famous monastery of Our Lady of
Guadaloupe, in Estremadura; the magnificent Escurial, with its
wealth of literary treasures, and the monastery of St. Just,
where Charles V. sought an asylum in the decline of his life,
attest their wonderful energy and zeal."

_J. Alzog,
Manual of Universal Church History,
volume 3, page 149._

HIGH CHURCH AND LOW CHURCH:
First use of the names.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1689 (APRIL-AUGUST).

HIGH COURT OF JUSTICE.

See CURIA REGIS.

HIGH GERMANY, Old League of.

See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1332-1460.

HIGH MIGHTINESSES, Their.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1651-1660.

HIGHER LAW DOCTRINE, The.

William H. Seward, speaking in the Senate of the United
States, March 11, 1850, on the question of the admission of
California into the Union as a Free State, used the following
language: "'The Constitution,' he said, 'regulates our
stewardship; the Constitution devotes the domain to union, to
justice, to defence, to welfare, and to liberty. But there is
a higher law than the Constitution, which regulates our
authority over the domain, and devotes it to the same noble
purposes. The territory is a part, no inconsiderable part, of
the common heritage of mankind, bestowed upon them by the
Creator of the universe. We are His stewards, and must so
discharge our trust as to secure in the highest attainable
degree their happiness.' This public recognition by a Senator
of the United States that the laws of the Creator were
'higher' than those of human enactment excited much
astonishment and indignation, and called forth, in Congress
and out of it, measureless abuse upon its author."

_H. Wilson,
History of the Rise and Fall
of the Slave Power in America,
volume 2, pages 262-263._

In the agitations that followed upon the adoption of the
Fugitive Slave Law, and the other compromise measures
attending the admission of California, this Higher Law
Doctrine was much talked about.

HIGHLAND CLANS.

See CLANS.

HIGHLANDS OF SCOTLAND.

See SCOTCH HIGHLAND AND LOWLAND.

HIKENILDE—STRETE.

See ROMAN ROADS IN BRITAIN.

HILDEBRAND (Pope Gregory VII.), and the Papacy.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1056-1122;
GERMANY: A. D. 973-1122;
and CANOSSA.

HILDEBRAND, KING OF THE LOMBARDS, A. D. 743-744.

HILL, Isaac, in the "Kitchen Cabinet" of President Jackson.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1829.

HILL, Rowland, and the adoption of penny-postage.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1840.

HILTON HEAD, The capture of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1861 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER: SOUTH CAROLINA-GEORGIA).

HIMATION, The.

An article of dress in the nature of a cloak, worn by both men
and women among the ancient Greeks. It "was arranged so that
the one corner was thrown over the left shoulder in front, so
as to be attached to the body by means of the left arm. On the
back the dress was pulled toward the right side, so as to
cover it completely up to the right shoulder, or, at least, to
the armpit, in which latter case the right shoulder remained
uncovered. Finally, the himation was again thrown over the
left shoulder, so that the ends fell over the back. … A
second way of arranging the himation, which left the right arm
free, was more picturesque, and is therefore usually found in
pictures."

_E. Guhl and W. Koner,
Life of the Greeks and Romans,
section 42._

----------HIMERA: Start--------

HIMERA, Battle of.

See SICILY: B. C. 480.

HIMERA:
Destroyed by Hannibal.

See SICILY: B. C. 409-405.

----------HIMERA: End--------

HIMYARITES, The.

See ARABIA.

HIN, The.

See EPHAH.

HINDMAN, Fort, Capture of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1863 (JANUARY: ARKANSAS).

{1647}

HINDOO KOOSH, The Name of the.

See CAUCASUS, THE INDIAN.

HINDUISM.

See INDIA: THE IMMIGRATION AND CONQUESTS OF THE ARYAS.

HINDUSTAN.

See INDIA: THE NAME.

HINKSTON'S FORK, Battle of (1782).

See KENTUCKY: A. D. 1775-1784.

HIONG-NU, The.

See TURKS: 6TH CENTURY.

HIPPARCH.

A commander of cavalry in the military organization of the
ancient Athenians.

_G. F. Schömann,
Antiquity of Greece: The State,
part 3, chapter 3._

HIPPEIS.

Among the Spartans, the honorary title of Hippeis, or Knights,
was given to the members of a chosen body of three hundred
young men, the flower of the Spartan youth, who had not
reached thirty years of age. "Their three leaders were called
Hippagretæ, although in war they served not as cavalry but as
hoplites. The name may possibly have survived from times in
which they actually served on horseback." At Athens the term
Hippeis was applied to the second of the four property classes
into which Solon divided the population,—their property
obliging them to serve as cavalry.

_G. Schömann,
Antiquity of Greece, The State,
part 3, chapters 1 and 3._

See, also, ATHENS: B. C. 594.

HIPPIS, Battle of the.

Fought, A. D. 550, in what was known as the Lazic War, between
the Persians on one side and the Romans and the Lazi on the
other. The latter were the victors.

_G. Rawlinson,
Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy,
chapter 20._

----------HIPPO: Start--------

HIPPO, OR HIPPO REGIUS.

An ancient city of north Africa, on the Numidian coast.

See NUMIDIANS; and CARTHAGE: DOMINION OF.

HIPPO: A. D. 430-431.
Siege by the Vandals.

See VANDALS: A. D. 429-439.

----------HIPPO: End--------

HIPPOBOTÆ, The.

See EUBŒA.

HIPPODROME. STADION. THEATER.

"The arts practised in the gymnasia were publicly displayed at
the festivals. The buildings in which these displays took
place were modified according to their varieties. The races
both on horseback and in chariots took place in the
hippodrome; for the gymnastic games of the pentathlon served
the stadion; while for the acme of the festivals, the musical
and dramatic performances, theatres were erected."

_E. Guhl and W. Koner,
Life of the Greeks and Romans
(translated by Hueffer),
sections 28-30._

HIPPOTOXOTÆ, The.

See SCYTHIANS, OR SCYTHÆ, OF ATHENS.

HIRA.

"The historians of the age of Justinian represent the state of
the independent Arabs, who were divided by interest or
affection in the long quarrel of the East [between the Romans
and Persians—3rd to 7th century]: the tribe of Gassan was
allowed to encamp on the Syrian territory; the princes of Hira
were permitted to form a city about 40 miles to the southward
of the ruins of Babylon. Their service in the field was speedy
and vigorous; but their friendship was venal, their faith
inconstant, their enmity capricious: it was an easier task to
excite than to disarm these roving barbarians; and, in the
familiar intercourse of war, they learned to see and to
despise the splendid weakness both of Rome and of Persia."

_E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 50 (volume 5)._

"The dynasty of Palmyra and the western tribes embraced
Christianity in the time of Constantine; to the east of the
desert the religion was later of gaining ground, and indeed
was not adopted by the court of Hira till near the end of the
6th century. Early in the 7th, Hira fell from its dignity as
an independent power, and became a satrapy of Persia."

_Sir William Muir,
Life of Mahomet,
introduction, chapter 1._

In 633 Hira was overwhelmed by the Mahometan conquest, and the
greater city of Kufa was built only 3 miles distant from it.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 632-651;
also, BUSSORAH AND KUFA.

HISPALIS.

The name of Seville under the Romans.

See SEVILLE.

HISPANIA CITERIOR AND HISPANIA ULTERIOR.

See SPAIN: B. C. 218-25.

HISPANIOLA.

The name given by Columbus to the island now divided between
the Republics of Hayti and San Domingo.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1492; 1493-1496, and after;
and HAYTI.

HISSARLIK.

The site of ancient Troy, as supposed to be identified by the
excavations of Dr. Schliemann.

See ASIA MINOR: THE GREEK COLONIES;
also, TROJA, and HOMER.

----------HISTORY: Start--------

HISTORY:
Definitions.