Chapter CDXXIII: Act 8: Parliament 1. repeated in Act 99. Parliament 7 (20)

On the abdication of King Amadeo, "a republic was declared by
the Cortes, and the gifted and eminent statesman, Castelar,
strove to give it a constitutional and conservative character.
But during the disorders of the last few years the Basque
provinces of Navarre and Biscay had been in a ferment excited
by the Carlists. The grandson of the Don Carlos who had
troubled Spain from 1833 to 1839 appeared in those provinces
which were still favourable to his cause, and this ardent
young champion of divine right of course received the support
of French legitimists. On the other hand, the doctrines of the
Paris Commune had found in the south of Spain many adherents,
who desired that their country should form a federation of
provincial republics. Malaga, Seville, Cadiz, Cartagena, and
Valencia revolted, and were reduced only after sharp fighting.
A group of generals then determined to offer the crown to
Alphonso, the young son of Isabella II, in whose favour she
had abdicated in 1868. Castelar, the moderate republican
statesman, reluctantly consented, and young Alphonso XII, on
landing in Spain, 1874, received the support of most
republicans and Carlists, disgusted by the excesses of their
extreme partisans.
{3017}
His generals gradually hemmed in the Carlists along the north
coast by battles near Bilbao and Irun; and when the rebels
shot a German subject Prince Bismarck sent German ships to aid
the Alphonsists. These in the spring of 1876 forced Don Carlos
and most of his supporters to cross the French frontier. The
Madrid Government now determined to put an end to the fueros
or local privileges of the Basque provinces, which they had
misused in openly preparing this revolt. So Biscay and Navarre
henceforth contributed to the general war expenses of Spain,
and their conscripts were incorporated with the regular army
of Spain. Thus the last municipal and provincial privileges of
the old Kingdom of Navarre vanished, and national unity became
more complete in Spain, as in every other country of Europe
except Austria and Turkey. The Basque provinces resisted the
change which placed them on a level with the rest of Spain,
and have not yet become reconciled to the Madrid Government.
The young King, Alphonso XII, had many other difficulties to
meet. The government was disorganised, the treasury empty, and
the country nearly ruined; but he had a trusty adviser in
Canovas del Castillo, a man of great prudence and talent, who,
whether prime minister or out of office, has really held power
in his hands. He succeeded in unifying the public debt, and by
lowering its rate of interest he averted State bankruptcy. He
also strove to free the administration from the habits of
bribe-taking which had long enfeebled and disgraced it; but in
this he met with less success, as also in striving for purity
of parliamentary election. … The Senate is composed of (1)
nobles, (2) deputies elected by the corporations and wealthy
classes, and (3) of life senators appointed by the crown. The
Chamber of Deputies is elected by universal suffrage, one
deputy for every 50,000 inhabitants. The king or either House
of Parliament has the right of proposing laws. In 1883 King
Alphonso paid a visit to Berlin, and was made honorary colonel
of a Uhlan regiment. For this he was hooted and threatened by
the Parisians on his visit to the French capital; and this
reception increased the coldness of Spain toward the French,
who had aggrieved their southern neighbour by designs on
Morocco. The good understanding between Spain and Germany was
over-clouded by a dispute about the Caroline Islands in the
Pacific, which Spain rightly regarded as her own. This
aggravated an illness of Alphonso, who died suddenly (November
25, 1885). His young widow, as queen-regent for her infant
child, has hitherto [1889] succeeded with marvellous tact."

_J. H. Rose,
A Century of Continental History,
chapter 43._

SPAIN: A. D. 1885-1894.
Alphonso XIII.

At the time of this writing (November, 1894), the
queen-regent, Maria Christina, is still reigning in the name
of her young son, Alphonso XIII.

----------SPAIN: End--------

SPALATO.

See SALONA, ANCIENT.

----------SPANISH AMERICA: Start--------

SPANISH AMERICA: A. D. 1492-1517.
Discoveries and early settlements.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1492, to 1513-1517.

SPANISH AMERICA: A. D. 1517-1524.
Discovery and conquest of Mexico.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1517-1518;
and MEXICO: 1519, to 1521-1524.

SPANISH AMERICA: A. D. 1527-1533.
Discovery and conquest or Peru.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1524-1528;
and PERU: A. D. 1528-1531, and 1531-1533.

SPANISH AMERICA: A. D. 1533.
Conquest of the kingdom of Quito.

See ECUADOR.

SPANISH AMERICA: A. D. 1535-1550.
Spanish conquests in Chile.

See CHILE: A. D. 1450-1724.

SPANISH AMERICA: A. D. 1536-1538.
Conquest of New Granada.

See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1536-1731.

SPANISH AMERICA: A. D. 1542-1568.
Establishment of the audiencias of Quito, Charcas,
New Granada, and Chile, under the viceroyalty of Peru.

See AUDIENCIAS.

SPANISH AMERICA: A. D. 1546-1724.
The Araucanian War.

See CHILE: A. D. 1450-1724.

SPANISH AMERICA: A. D. 1580.
Final founding of the city of Buenos Ayres.

See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1580-1777.

SPANISH AMERICA: A. D. 1608-1767.
The Jesuits in Paraguay.

See PARAGUAY: A. D. 1608-1873.

SPANISH AMERICA: A. D. 1620.
Formation of the government of Rio de La Plata.

See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1580-1777.

SPANISH AMERICA: A. D. 1767.
Expulsion of the Jesuits.

See PARAGUAY: A. D. 1608-1873.

SPANISH AMERICA: A. D. 1776.
Creation of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres.

See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1580-1777;
and PERU: A. D. 1550-1816.

SPANISH AMERICA: A. D. 1810-1816.
Revolt, independence and
confederation of the Argentine Provinces.

See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1806-1820.

SPANISH AMERICA: A. D. 1810-1818.
Chilean independence achieved.

See CHILE: A. D. 1810-1818.

SPANISH AMERICA: A. D. 1810-1821.
The War of Independence in Venezuela and New Granada.

See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1810-1819.

SPANISH AMERICA: A. D. 1811.
Paraguayan independence accomplished.

See PARAGUAY: A. D. 1608-1873.

SPANISH AMERICA: A. D. 1820-1826.
The independence of Mexico.
Brief Empire of Iturbide.
The Federal Republic established.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1820-1826.

SPANISH AMERICA: A. D. 1821.
Independence acquired in the Central American States.

See CENTRAL AMERICA: A. D. 1821-1871.

SPANISH AMERICA: A. D. 1824.
Peruvian independence won at Ayacucho.

See PERU: A. D. 1820-1826.

SPANISH AMERICA: A. D. 1826.
The Congress of Panama.

See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1826.

SPANISH AMERICA: A. D. 1828.
The Banda Oriental becomes the Republic of Uruguay.

See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1819-1874.

----------SPANISH AMERICA: End--------

SPANISH ARMADA, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1588.

SPANISH COINS.

"The early chroniclers make their reckonings of values under
different names at different times. Thus during the
discoveries of Columbus we hear of little else but
'maravedis'; then the 'peso de oro' takes the lead, together
with the 'castellano'; all along 'marco' and 'ducado' being
occasionally used. At the beginning of the 16th century, and
before and after, Spanish values were reckoned from a mark of
silver, which was the standard. A mark was half a pound either
of gold or silver. The gold mark was divided into 50
castellanos; the silver mark into eight ounces. In the reign
of Ferdinand and Isabella the mark was divided by law into 65
'reales de vellon' of 34 maravedis each, making 2,210
maravedis in a mark. … In the reign of Alfonso Xl., 1312-1350,
there were 125 maravedis to the mark, while in the reign of
Ferdinand VII., 1808-1833, a mark was divided into 5,440
maravedis.
{3018}
In Spanish America a 'real' is one-eighth of a 'peso,' and
equal to 2½ reales de vellon. The peso contains one ounce of
silver; it was formerly called 'peso de ocho reales de plata,'
whence came the term 'pieces of eight,' a vulgarism at one
time in vogue among the merchants and buccaneers in the West
Indies. … The castellano, the one fiftieth of the golden mark,
in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, was equivalent to 490
maravedis of that day. The 'peso de oro,' according to Oviedo,
was exactly equivalent to the castellano, and either was one
third greater than the ducado or ducat. The 'doblon' … was
first struck by Ferdinand and Isabella as a gold coin of the
weight of two castellanos. The modern doubloon is an ounce of
coined gold, and is worth 16 pesos fuertes. Reduced to United
States currency, the peso fuerte, as slightly alloyed bullion,
is in weight nearly enough equivalent to one dollar. Therefore
a mark of silver is equal to 8 dollars; a piece of eight,
equal to one peso, which equals one dollar; a real de vellon,
5 cents; a Spanish-American real], 12½ cents; a maravedi,
100/276 of a cent; a castellano, or peso de oro $2.56; a
doubloon $5.14; a ducat, $1.92; a mark of gold $128, assuming
the United States alloy. The fact that a castellano was
equivalent to only 490 maravedis shows the exceedingly high
value of silver as compared with gold at the period in
question."

_H. H. Bancroft,
History of the Pacific States,
volume 1, pages 192-193, foot-note. _

SPANISH CONSPIRACY, The.

See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1785-1800.

SPANISH ERA, The.

See ERA, SPANISH.

SPANISH FURY, The.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1575-1577.

SPANISH INQUISITION, The.

See INQUISITION: A. D. 1203-1525.

SPANISH MAIN, The.

"The Spanish main was simply the mainland, terra firma, of
Spanish America, as opposed to the islands: but the term
'terra firma' was specially applied to the northern part of
South America, extending 'all along the North Sea from the
Pacific Ocean to the mouth of the river of Amazons upon the
Atlantic' (Burke, European Settlements in America, Part III.,
chapter xvi.), and comprising the towns of Panama, Carthagena,
and Porto Bello.

See TIERRA FIRME.

Longfellow blunders in the 'Wreck of the Hesperus' when he
speaks of the old sailor who 'had sailed the Spanish main.'"

_C. P. Lucas,
Historical Geography of the British Colonies,
volume 2, page 35, foot-note._

SPANISH MARCH, The.

See SPAIN: A. D. 778.

SPANISH MARRIAGES, The question of the.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1841-1848.

SPANISH SUCCESSION, The War of the.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1698-1700, and after;
NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1702-1704, and after;
GERMANY: A. D. 1702, and after;
ITALY: A. D. 1701-1713;
NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1702-1710;
and UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

----------SPARTA: Start--------

SPARTA: The City.
Its situation, origin and growth.
Laconia.
"Hollow Lacedæmon."

"Laconia is formed by two mountain-chains running immediately
from Arcadia [from the center to the southeastern extremity of
Peloponnesus], and enclosing the river Eurotas, whose source
is separated from that of an Arcadian stream by a very
trifling elevation. The Eurotas is, for some way below the
city of Sparta, a rapid mountain-stream; then, after forming a
cascade, it stagnates into a morass; but lower down it passes
over a firm soil in a gentle and direct course. Near the town
of Sparta rocks and hills approach the banks on both sides,
and almost entirely shut in the river both above and below the
town: this enclosed plain is without doubt the 'hollow
Lacedæmon' of Homer."

_C. O. Müller,
History and Antiquity of the Doric Race,
book 1, chapter 4._

Upon the Dorian invasion and occupation of Peloponnesus (see
DORIANS AND IONIANS) the city and neighborhood of Sparta in
Laconia,—i. e. Sparta and 'hollow Lacedæmon,' —became the seat
of the dominant state which they founded in the peninsula. The
conquerors, themselves, and their descendants, were the only
full citizens of this Spartan state and were called Spartiatæ
or Spartans. The prior inhabitants of the country were reduced
to political dependence, in a class called the Periœci, or
else to actual serfdom in the more degraded class known as
Helots. "Sparta was not, like other towns of the Greeks,
composed of a solid body of houses, but, originally in a rural
and open situation on the river and its canals, it gradually
stretched out into the open country, and Dorians lived far
beyond Sparta along the entire valley, without the inhabitants
of remoter points being on that account in any less degree
citizens of Sparta than those dwelling by the ford of the
Eurotas. They were all Spartans, as by a stricter term they
were called, as distinguished from the Lacedæmonians. …
Strictly apart from this exclusive community of Spartiatæ
there remained, with its ancient conditions of life intact,
the older population of the land, which dwelt scattered on the
mountains surrounding the land of the Spartiatæ on all sides
(hence called the dwellers-around, or Periœci). More than
trebling the Spartiatæ in number, they cultivated the
incomparably less remunerative arable land of the mountains,
the precipitous declivities of which they made available by
means of terraced walls for cornfields and vineyards. … Free
proprietors on their own holdings, they, according to
primitive custom, offered their tribute to the kings. The
country people, on the other hand, residing on the fields of
the Spartiatæ, met with a harder fate. Part of them probably
consisted of peasants on the domains; others had been
conquered in the course of internal feuds. They were left on
the fields which had been once their own, on the condition of
handing over to the Spartiatæ quartered upon them an important
portion of their produce. This oppression provoked several
risings; and we must assume that the ancient sea-town of Helos
was for a time the centre of one of these outbreaks. For this
is the only admissible explanation of the opinion universally
prevailing among the ancients, that from that town is derived
the name of the Helots."

_E. Curtius,
History of Greece,
volume 1, book. 2, chapter 1._

ALSO IN:
_G. F. Schömann,
Antiquities of Greece: The State,
part 3, chapter 1._

{3019}

SPARTA:
The Constitution ascribed to Lycurgus.

"Sparta was the city from which the Dorians slowly extended
their dominion over a considerable portion of Peloponnesus. Of
the progress of her power we have only the most meagre
information. … The internal condition of Sparta at this early
period is uniformly described as one of strife and bad
government, a condition of affairs which was certainly
unfavourable to external development and conquest. Herodotus
attributes these dissensions, at least in part, to the mutual
animosity of the two royal families; the twin sons of
Aristodemus quarrelled all their lives, and their descendants
after them did the same. Plutarch, on the other hand, speaks
of quarrels between the kings and the people. … Whatever the
cause, it is more certain than any other fact in early Spartan
history that the condition of the country was for a long time
one of internal strife and dissension. It was the great merit
of Lycurgus to have put an end to this disastrous state of
affairs. Lycurgus is the foremost name in Spartan history.
Tradition is nearly unanimous in describing this lawgiver as
the author of the prosperity of Sparta, and the founder of her
peculiar institutions, but about the date and the events of
his life the greatest uncertainty prevailed. … Thucydides,
though he does not mention Lycurgus, asserts that the form of
the government had continued the same in Sparta for more than
four hundred years before the end of the Peloponnesian war. In
his opinion, therefore, the reforms of Lycurgus were
introduced shortly before 804 B. C. This date is considerably
later than that usually given to Lycurgus, on the authority of
the ancient chronologers. … Herodotus tells us that Lycurgus,
when visiting the Delphic shrine, was hailed by the priestess
as a being more than human, and some authorities asserted that
the Spartan institutions were revealed to him there. The
Lacedaemonians, however, regarded Crete as the source of their
peculiar arrangements [see CRETE]. They were thus enabled to
connect them with the great name of Minos, and derive their
authority from Zeus himself. … Plutarch has fortunately
transcribed the text of the Rhetrae, or ordinances, which were
given to Lycurgus at Delphi. There does not seem to be any
reason to doubt that these were the oldest ordinances known at
Sparta, or that they formed the basis of their 'good
government.' They were therefore the oldest political
ordinances known in Hellas, and, indeed, in the world. 'Found
a temple to Zeus Hellanius, and Athena Hellania, arrange the
tribes, and the Obes, thirty in number, establish the Gerousia
with the Archagetae. Summon the people for meeting from time
to time between Babyca and the Cnacion, there bring forward
and decide (reject). The people are to have the supreme
power.' Thus the first duty of the lawgiver was to found a
public sanctuary which should be as it were the centre of the
community. Then the people were to be arranged in tribes and
Obes. The division into tribes was not a new one; from the
first the Dorians at Sparta, as elsewhere, when free from the
admixture of external elements, were divided into three
tribes, Hylleis, Dymanes, Pamphyli, but it is possible that
some changes were now introduced, regulating the internal
arrangement of the tribe. In each tribe were ten Obes, of
which we know nothing beyond the name. They appear to have
been local divisions. As the Gerousia [see GERUSIA], including
the kings, contained thirty members, we may conjecture that
each Obe was represented in the Senate, and therefore that the
two kings were the representatives of two distinct Obes. The
Archagetae are the kings, or leaders of the people. From time
to time the community were to be summoned to a meeting. …
Before the assembled people measures were to be introduced
that they might decide upon them, for no measure was valid
which had not received the sanction of the whole people. The
elements with which these ordinances deal—the Kings, the
Council and the Assembly—appear in the Homeric poems, and grew
naturally out of the patriarchal government of the tribe. The
work of Lycurgus did not consist in creating new elements, but
in consolidating those which already existed into a harmonious
whole. … Three other ordinances which are ascribed to Lycurgus
forbade (1) the use of written laws; (2) the use of any tools
but the axe and saw in building a house; (3) frequent wars
upon the same enemies. He is also said to have forbidden the
use of coined money in Sparta. Neither gold nor silver was to
be used for purposes of exchange, but bars of iron, which by
their small value and great bulk rendered money dealings on
any large scale impossible. The iron of these bars was also
made unusually brittle in order that it might be useless for
ordinary purposes. Such precepts were doubtless observed at
Sparta, though they may not have been derived from Lycurgus.
The training which every Spartan underwent was intended to
diminish the sphere of positive law as much as possible, and
to encourage the utmost simplicity and even rudeness of life.
… About a century after Lycurgus, in the reign of Theopompus,
two changes of great importance were made in the Spartan
constitution. The veto which the earlier rhetra had allowed to
the assembled people was cancelled, and a new law was
introduced, which gave the ultimate control to the Gerontes
and Kings. 'If the people decide crookedly, the elders and
chiefs shall put it back,' i. e. shall reverse the popular
decision. Under what circumstances this ordinance, which is
said to have been obtained from Delphi, was passed, we do not
know, nor is it quite clear how it consists with what we find
recorded of the constitutional history of Sparta in later
times. … The second innovation was even more important. Though
Herodotus ascribes the institution of the Ephoralty [see
EPHORS] to Lycurgus, it seems more correct to follow Aristotle
and others in ascribing it to Theopompus. The Ephors, who were
five in number, appear in the first instance to have been of
no great importance. But as they were intimately connected
with the commons, elected from and by them as their
representatives, we must assume that the ephoralty was a
concession to the people, and it may have been a compensation
for the loss of the right of voting in the assembly. In time
the ephors grew to be the most important officers in the
state, both in war and in peace. They were associated with the
council, they presided in the assembly, and even the kings
were not exempt from their power. To this result the growing
dread of 'a tyrannis,' like that at Corinth or Sicyon, and the
increasing importance of the Spartan training, which the
ephors superintended, in a great measure contributed. … The
kings were the leaders of the army. For a time they always
took the field together, but owing to the dissensions of
Cleomenes and Demaratus, a law was passed that one king only
should go out with the army, and it was henceforth the custom
for one king only to be absent from Sparta, at a time.
{3020}
The kings had the right of making war on whom they would, and
no one could prevent them, on pain of being under a curse, but
as they were liable to be brought to trial on their return for
failure in an expedition, they usually obtained the consent of
the ephors or the assembly before going. … The origin of the
dual monarchy, which from the first was so distinctive a
feature of the Spartan government, is very obscure, and many
attempts have been made to explain it. It may have arisen by a
fusion of the native and immigrant races, each of which was
allowed to retain its own prince in the new community. … It is
perhaps more reasonable to assume that the two kings represent
two leading families, each of which had a claim to give a
chief to the community. That two families holding equal rights
should be regarded as descended from the twin sons of the
Dorian founder of Sparta is merely one of the fictions which
of necessity arose in the period when all political unions and
arrangements were expressed in the terms of genealogical
connection. … The Apella was an assembly of all the Spartan
citizens who had reached the age of thirty years. … In
historical times it was presided over by the ephors. No
speaking was allowed except by officers of State and persons
duly invited, and perhaps the Senators. The votes were given
by acclamation. The assembly decided on war and peace,
treaties. and foreign politics generally; it elected the
ephors and gerontes. … More important for the development of
Sparta than her political constitution was the education and
training which her citizens received. … The Spartan did not
exist for himself but for his city; for her service he was
trained from birth, and the most intimate relations of his
life were brought under her control. In the secluded valley of
the Eurotas, where till the time of Epaminondas no invader
ever set foot, amid profound peace, he nevertheless led the
life of a warrior in the field. His strength and endurance
were tested to the utmost; he was not permitted to surrender
himself to the charm of family life and domestic affections.
Even when allowed to marry, he spent but little time at home;
his children, if thought worthy of life, were taken from him
at an early age to go through the same training in which he
himself had been brought up. Only when he reached the age of
sixty years, at which he could no longer serve his country in
the field, was he permitted to enjoy the feeling of personal
freedom."

_E. Abbott,
History of Greece,
part 1, chapter 6._

ALSO IN:
_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapter 6._

_G. W. Cox,
History of Greece,
book 1, chapter 5._

_C. O. Müller,
History and Antiquities of the Doric Race,
book 3 (volume 2)._

SPARTA: B. C. 743-510.
The First and Second Messenian Wars.
Military supremacy in Peloponnesus established.

"The effect of the Lycurgean institutions was to weld the
people of Sparta into what Grote well denominates a 'military
brotherhood'—the most potent military machine which at that
time, and for long after, existed in Greece or in the world.
Had their political ambition and ability been proportionate,
it is difficult to doubt that the Lacedæmonians might have
anticipated the career of the Romans; but their inability to
produce really great statesmen, and the iron rigidity of their
political system, placed in their path effectual barriers to
the attainment of such grandeur. … The first object of their
attacks was the neighbouring Dorian kingdom of Messenia. The
kinship between the two peoples and their rulers had
previously kept them on friendly terms. It was symbolized and
expressed by joint sacrifices, annually celebrated at a temple
in honour of Artemis which stood on the borders between the
two countries, near the source of the river Neda. It was a
quarrel that broke out at these annual rites which led to the
outbreak of the first Messenian war, about 743 B. C. The
circumstances of the quarrel were differently related by the
two parties; but it resulted in the death of' Teleclus, one of
the Spartan kings. His subjects invaded Messenia to obtain
redress. At first the struggle was of an indecisive character,
but ultimately the Messenians were obliged to take refuge on
the fortified mountain of Ithome, and all the rest of their
country was overrun and conquered by their persistent enemies.
After the war had lasted twenty years, the Messenian garrison
was compelled to abandon Ithome, the fortifications of which
were razed by the Spartans, and Messenia became part of the
Lacedæmonian territory, —all its inhabitants who refused to
submit being driven into exile. Pausanius and other ancient
writers give long details of the events of this twenty years'
struggle, the great hero of which was the Messenian king
Aristomenes; but these details are as legendary as the
exploits of the Homeric heroes, and all that is certainly
known about the war is that it ended in the subjugation of
Messenia. The severity and oppression with which the conquered
people were ruled led them, about forty years later, to rise
up in revolt, and another struggle of seventeen years'
duration followed. In this, again, Aristomenes is represented
as the Messenian leader, although he had put an end to his own
life at the unsuccessful close of the former contest; and the
later Hellenic writers tried to get over this impossibility by
declaring that the Aristomenes of the second war must have
been a descendant of the earlier hero bearing the same name.
In the course of the war the Spartans suffered severely, as
the Messenians had the support of other Peloponnesian
communities—especially the Arcadians—who had begun to dread
the strength and arrogance of the Lacedæmonians. Ultimately,
however, the revolt was crushed, and from that time till the
days of Epaminondas, Messenia remained a part of the Laconian
territory.

See MESSENIAN WARS, FIRST AND SECOND.

To Sparta it was an important acquisition, for the plain of
the Pamisus was the most fertile district in Peloponnesus. The
Spartans next became aggressive on the eastern and northern
frontiers of their territory. Among the numerous independent
communities of Arcadia, the two most important were Tegea and
Mantinea, in the extreme east of the Arcadian territory. With
these cities, especially the former, the Spartans had some
severe struggles, but were not able to conquer them, though
they established a dominant influence, and reduced them to the
position of dependent allies. From Argos … the Lacedæmonians
wrested, in the course of two centuries, the strip of
territory between the Parnon range and the sea from Thyrea
down to the Malean promontory. By the beginning of the 6th
century B. C. they were masters of two-fifths of the whole
area of Peloponnesus—a territory of something more than 3,000
square miles.
{3021}
To modern notions, such a territory, which is smaller in
extent than more than one Scottish county, seems utterly
insignificant; but it sufficed to make Sparta the largest and
strongest state in Hellas, and even at the pinnacle of her
power she never made any further addition to her possessions
in Peloponnesus. Protected from invasion by impregnable
natural defences, and possessing a military discipline, a
social and political unity, such as no other Grecian community
could boast, the Lacedæmonians possessed peculiar advantages
in the competition for the Hellenic leadership. … It was about
the close of the 6th century B. C. that Sparta, having
asserted her supremacy in Peloponnesus, began to take an
active part in the affairs of the Hellenic communities outside
the peninsula. … In 510 B. C. her king, Cleomenes, went to
Athens at the head of a large force to obey the mandate of the
Delphic oracle and 'liberate the city' by the expulsion of the
Pisistratids."

_C. H. Hanson,
The Land of Greece,
chapter 11._

ALSO IN:
_C. Thirlwall,
History of Greece,
chapter 9._

_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapters 7-8._

SPARTA: B. C. 509-506.
Persistent undertakings of Cleomenes to restore tyranny at
Athens, opposed by the Corinthians and other allies.

See ATHENS: B. C. 509-506.

SPARTA: B. C. 508.
Interference of King Cleomenes at Athens, and its failure.

See ATHENS: B. C. 510-507.

SPARTA: B. C. 501.
Refusal of aid to the Ionian revolt.

See PERSIA: B. C. 521-493.

SPARTA: B. C. 496.
War with Argos.
Prostration of the Argive state.

See ARGOS: B. C. 496-421.

SPARTA: B. C. 492-491.
Headship in Greece recognized.
Defiance of the Persian king.
Enforced unity of Greece for war.

See GREECE: B. C. 492-491.

SPARTA: B. C. 481-479.
Congress at Corinth.
Organized Hellenic Union against Persia.
The Spartan headship.

See GREECE: B. C. 481-479.

SPARTA: B. C. 480.
The Persian War.
Leonidas and his Three Hundred at Thermopylæ.

See GREECE: B. C. 480 THERMOPYLÆ.

SPARTA: B. C. 478.
Interference to forbid the rebuilding of the walls of Athens,
foiled by Themistocles.

See ATHENS: B. C. 479-478.

SPARTA: B. C. 478-477.
Mad conduct of Pausanias at Byzantium.
Alienation of the Asiatic Greeks.
Loss of the leadership of the Greek world.
Formation of the Confederacy of Delos, with Athens at
its head.

See GREECE: B. C. 478-477.

SPARTA: B. C. 464-455.
The great Earthquake.
The Third Messenian War.
Offensive rebuff to Athenian friendliness.

See MESSENIAN WARS: THE THIRD.

SPARTA: B. C. 462-458.
Embittered enmity at Athens.
Rise of Pericles and the democratic Anti-Spartan party.
Athenian alliance with Argos, Thessaly, and Megara.

See ATHENS: B. C. 466-454.

SPARTA: B. C. 457.
Interference in Phocis.
Collision with the Athenians and victory at Tanagra.

See GREECE: B. C. 458-456.

SPARTA: B. C.453.
Five years truce with Athens.

See ATHENS: B. C. 460-449.

SPARTA: B. C. 449-445.
Aid to revolts in Bœotia, Eubœa and Megara
against Athenian rule or influence.
The Thirty Years Truce.

See GREECE: B. C. 449-445.

SPARTA: B. C. 440.
Interference with Athens in Samos opposed by Corinth.

See ATHENS: B. C. 440-437.

SPARTA: B. C. 432-431.
Hearing of charges against Athens.
Congress of Allies.
Decision for war.
Theban attack on Platæa.
Opening of the Peloponnesian War.

See GREECE: B. C. 432-431.

SPARTA: B. C. 431-429.
First and second years of the Peloponnesian War:
Invasions of Attica.
Plague at Athens.
Death of Pericles.

See GREECE: B. C. 431-429.

SPARTA: B. C. 429-427.
The Peloponnesian War: Siege of Platæa.

See GREECE: B. C. 429-427 SIEGE OF PLATÆA.

SPARTA: B. C. 428-427.
The Peloponnesian War:
Aid to the insurgent Mityleneans.
Its failure.

See GREECE: B. C. 429-427 PHORMIO'S SEA-FIGHTS.

SPARTA: B. C. 425.
The Peloponnesian War: Catastrophe at Sphacteria.
Peace pleaded for and refused by Athens.

See GREECE: B. C. 425.

SPARTA: B. C. 424-421.
Peloponnesian War: Successes of Brasidas in Chalcidice.
Athenian defeat at Delium.
Death of Brasidas.
Peace of Nikias.

See GREECE: B. C. 424-421.

SPARTA: B. C. 421-418.
The Peloponnesian War: New hostile combinations.
The Argive confederacy.
War in Argos and Arcadia.
Victory at Mantinea.

See GREECE: B. C. 421-418.

SPARTA: B. C. 415-413.
The Peloponnesian War:
Help to Syracuse against the Athenians.
Comfort to the fugitive Alcibiades.

See SYRACUSE: B. C. 415-413.

SPARTA: B. C. 413-412.
The Peloponnesian War:
Aid to the revolting cities in Asia and the Ægean.
Intrigues of Alcibiades.

See GREECE: B. C. 413-412.

SPARTA: B. C. 413.
Negotiations with Persian satraps.
Subsidies for war against Athens.
Invasion of Attica.
The Decelian War.

See GREECE: B. C. 413.

SPARTA: B. C. 411-407.
Athenian victories at Cynossema and Abydos.
Exploits of Alcibiades.
His return to Athens.
His second deposition and exile.

See GREECE: B. C. 411-407.

SPARTA: B. C. 406.
The Peloponnesian War: Defeat at Arginusæ.

See GREECE: B. C. 406.

SPARTA: B. C. 405.
The Peloponnesian War: Decisive victory at Ægospotami.

See GREECE: B. C. 405.

SPARTA: B. C. 404.
End of the Peloponnesian War: Surrender of Athens.

See ATHENS: B. C. 404.

SPARTA: B. C. 404-403.
The organizing of Spartan supremacy.
The Harmosts in power.

The overthrow of Athenian power in the Greek world, made final
by the battle of Ægospotami, B. C. 405, rendered Sparta
supreme, and established her in a sovereignty of affairs which
is often alluded to as the Spartan, or Lacedæmonian Empire.
The cities which had been either allied or subject to Athens
were now submissive to the Spartan conqueror, Lysander. "He
availed himself of his strength to dissolve the popular system
of government in all the towns which had belonged to the Attic
confederation, and to commit the government to a fixed body of
men enjoying his confidence. As at Athens the Thirty, so
elsewhere Commissions of Ten [called Dekarchies] were
established.

See ATHENS: B. C. 404-403.

{3022}

In order to give security and strength to those governing
bodies, detachments of Spartan troops were placed by their
side, under the command of a Harmost. This measure, again,
was, by no means a novel invention. From an early period the
Lacedæmonians had been in the habit of despatching Harmostæ
(i. e. military governors) into the rural districts, to hold
sway over the Periœci, and to keep the latter in strict
subjection to the capital. Such Harmosts were subsequently
also sent abroad; and this, of itself, showed how the Spartans
had no intention of recognizing various kinds of subjection,
and how they at bottom designed to make no essential
difference between subject rural communities in Laconia and
the foreign towns which had of their own accord, or otherwise,
submitted to the power of Sparta. The duration of the
Harmosts' tenure of office was not defined."

_E. Curtius,
History of Greece,
book 5, chapter 1 (volume 4)._

ALSO IN:
_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapter 72._

_G. F. Schömann,
Antiquities of Greece: The State,
part 3, chapter 1._

_C. Sankey,
The Spartan and Theban Supremacies,
chapter 1._

SPARTA: B. C. 399-387.
War with Persia and with a hostile league in Greece.
Struggle for the Corinthian isthmus.
Restored independence of Athens.
The Peace of Antalcidas.

See GREECE: B. C. 399-387.

SPARTA: B. C. 385.
Destruction of Mantinea.

See GREECE: B. C. 385.

SPARTA: B. C. 383.
Treacherous seizure of the Kadmeia of Thebes.

See GREECE: B. C. 383.

SPARTA: B. C. 383-379.
Overthrow of the Olynthian Confederacy.

See GREECE: B. C. 383-379.

SPARTA: B. C. 379-371.
Liberation and triumph of Thebes.
Spartan supremacy broken at Leuctra.

See GREECE: B. C. 379-371.

SPARTA: B. C. 371-362.
The conflict with Thebes.
Two attempts of Epaminondas against the city.
The battle of Mantinea.

See GREECE: B. C. 371-362.

SPARTA: B. C. 353-331.
Independent attitude towards Philip of Macedon.

See GREECE: B. C. 357-336.

SPARTA: B. C. 317.
Building of Walls.

It was not until about the year 317 B. C., during the
distractions which followed the death of Alexander the Great,
that walls were built around the city of Sparta. "The
maintenance of Sparta as an unwalled city was one of the
deepest and most cherished of the Lykurgean traditions; a
standing proof of the fearless bearing and self-confidence of
the Spartans against dangers from without. The erection of the
walls showed their own conviction, but too well borne out by
the real circumstances around them, that the pressure of the
foreigner had become so overwhelming as not to leave them even
safety at home."

_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapter 96._

SPARTA: B. C. 272.
Siege by Pyrrhus.

Not many years after the walls of Sparta were first built the
city was subjected to a siege by Pyrrhus, the ambitious
Epirotic king. There were two claimants to the Spartan crown,
and Pyrrhus, espousing the cause of the unsuccessful one,
marched into Peloponnesus with a powerful army, (B. C. 272)
and assailed the Lacedæmonian capital. He was repulsed and
repulsed again, and gave up the attempt at last, marching away
to Argos, where his interference in local quarrels had been
solicited. He perished there, ignominiously, in another
abortive enterprise, being killed by a tile flung down by a
woman's hand, from a housetop overlooking the street in which
he was attempting to manage the retreat of his discomfited
forces.

_C. Thirlwall,
History of Greece,
chapter 60._

See MACEDONIA, &c.: B. C. 277-244.

SPARTA: B. C. 227-221.
Downfall in the Cleomenic War.

See GREECE: B. C. 280-146.

SPARTA: A. D. 267.
Ravaged by the Goths.

See GOTHS: A. D. 258-267.

SPARTA: A. D. 395.
Plundered by the Goths.

See GOTHS: A. D. 395.

----------SPARTA: End--------

SPARTACUS, The Rising of.

Schools for the training of gladiators, to supply the
barbarous amusement which the Romans delighted in, were
numerous at Rome and throughout Italy. The men placed in these
schools were slaves, criminal prisoners, or unfortunates whose
parents abandoned them in infancy. As a rule, they were forced
into the brutal profession and the schools which trained them
for it were places of confinement and restraint. From one of
these schools, at Capua, some seventy or more gladiators
escaped, in the year 73 B. C., and fled to the mountains. They
had for their leader a Thracian, named Spartacus, who proved
to be a soldier of remarkable ability and energy. Stationing
himself at first on Mount Vesuvius, Spartacus was joined by
other slaves and fugitives, until he had a large force under
his command. Again and again the Roman armies sent against him
were defeated and the insurgents equipped themselves with
captured arms. Nola, Nuceria, and other towns in Southern
Italy fell into their hands. In the year 72 B. C. they moved
toward North Italy, routing two consular armies on their way,
and were thought to be intending to escape beyond the Alps;
but, after another great victory at Mutina (Modena) over the
proconsul of Gallia Cisalpina, Spartacus turned southward
again, for some unexplained reason, and allowed himself to be
blockaded in the extremity of Lucania, by M. Licinius Crassus.
In this situation he sought to make terms, but his proposals
were rejected. He then succeeded in breaking through the Roman
lines, but was pursued by Crassus and overwhelmingly defeated
at Mount Calamatius, where 35,000 of the insurgents are said
to have been slain. The flying remnant was again brought to
bay near Petilia, in Bruttium, and there Spartacus ended his
life. A few thousand of the insurgents who escaped from the
field were intercepted by Pompey and cut to pieces, while
6,000 captives were crucified, with Roman brutality, along the
road between Capua and Rome.

_G. Long,
Decline cf the Roman Republic,
volume 3, chapter 2._

See, also, ROME: B. C. 78-68.

SPARTAN EMPIRE.

See SPARTA: B. C. 404-403.

SPARTAN TRAINING.

See EDUCATION, ANCIENT: GREECE;
also, SPARTA, THE CONSTITUTION, &c.

{3023}

SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE OF COMMONS.

The splendor of the position of Speaker of the British House
of Commons is perhaps not generally realized. The appointment,
nominally for the duration of but one Parliament, generally
extends over several. … Chosen from among the members, subject
to the approval of the Crown, the Speaker can be removed only
upon an address to the Crown. Besides a palatial residence
occupying one wing of the Houses of Parliament, and a large
patronage, he receives a salary of £5,000 a year. At the end
of his labors he is rewarded with a peerage and a pension of
£4,000 per annum for two lives. He is a member of the Privy
Council, and the first gentleman in the United Kingdom, taking
rank after barons. … The wig and gown which he wears, the
state and ceremony with which he is surrounded, doubtless
contribute to the isolation and impressiveness of his
position. … When, at the opening of proceedings, he makes his
way in state from his residence to the Chamber, through the
corridors used by members for passing to the committee,
library, and refreshment rooms, it is against etiquette for
anyone to be found therein. When on summer evenings he and his
family take the air upon the portion of the terrace which is
outside his residence, there is no more thought of approaching
them than there would be if he were a Grand Lama. When in the
chair, he can be approached only upon strictly business
matters. His levees, held twice a year and open to all
members, can be attended only in court costume, sword by the
side."

_The Nation, August 17, 1893 (page 117). _

SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.

See CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES.

SPECIE CIRCULAR, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1835-1837.

SPENCEAN PHILANTHROPISTS. SPENCEANS.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1816-1820.

SPEUSINII.

See SCYTHIANS, OR SCYTHÆ, OF ATHENS.

SPHACTERIA, Capture of.

See GREECE: B. C. 425.

SPHINX, The.

"About six hundred yards to the Southeast of the Great Pyramid
is the Sphinx. The Sphinx is a natural rock, to which has been
given, more or less accurately, the external appearance of
that mystic animal. The head alone has been sculptured. The
body is formed of the rock itself, supplemented, where
defective, by a somewhat clumsy masonry of limestone. The
total height of the monument is 19 metres 80 centimetres,
equal to 65 English feet. The ear measures 6 feet 5 inches;
the nose 5 feet 10 inches; and the mouth 7 feet 8 inches. The
face, in its widest part, across the cheek, is 4 metres 15
centimetres, that is, 13 feet 7 inches. Its origin is still a
matter of doubt. At one time it was supposed to be a monument
of the reign of Thothmes IV. (XVIIIth dynasty). But we know
now, thanks to a stone in the Boulak Museum, that the Sphinx
was already in existence when Cheops (who preceded Chephren)
gave orders for the repairs which this stone commemorates. It
must also be remembered that the Sphinx is the colossal image
of an Egyptian god called Armachis."

_A. Mariette,
Monuments of Upper Egypt,
page 70._

SPICHERN, OR FORBACH, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870 (JULY-AUGUST).

SPINNING-JENNY, Invention of the.

See COTTON MANUFACTURE.

----------SPIRES: Start--------

SPIRES: A. D. 1526-1529.
The imperial Diets.
Legal recognition of the Reformed religion,
and its withdrawal.
Protest of Lutheran princes.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1525-1529.

SPIRES: A. D. 1689.
Destruction by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1689-1690.

SPIRES: A. D. 1713.
Taken by the French.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

----------SPIRES: End--------

SPOILS SYSTEM, The.

See CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM IN THE UNITED STATES.

SPOLETO: A. D. 1155.
Burned by Frederick Barbarossa.

See ITALY: A. D. 1154-1162.

SPOLIA OPIMA.

"The proudest of all military trophies were Spolia Opima,
which could be gained only when the commander-in-chief of a
Roman army engaged and overthrew in single combat the
commander-in-chief of the enemy. … Roman history afforded but
three examples of legitimate Spolia Opima. The first were won
by Romulus from Acro, King of the Ceninenses; the second by
Aulus Cornelius Cossus from Lar Tolumnius, King of the
Veientes; the third by M. Claudius Marcellus from Virodomarus,
a Gaulish chief (B. C. 222). In all cases they were dedicated
to Jupiter Feretrius and preserved in his temple."

_W. Ramsay,
Manual of Roman Antiquity,
chapter 12._

SPOLIATION CLAIMS, French.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1800.

SPORADES, The.

See CYCLADES.

SPOTTSYLVANIA, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (MAY: VIRGINIA)
GRANT'S MOVEMENT, &C.: SPOTTSYLVANIA.

SPRING HILL, Engagement at.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (NOVEMBER: TENNESSEE).

SPRINGFIELD, Massachusetts: A. D. 1637.
The first settlement.

See CONNECTICUT: A. D. 1634-1637.

SPURS, The Battle of the (1513).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1513-1515.

SPURS, The Day of the.

See COURTRAI, THE BATTLE OF.

SQUATTER SOVEREIGNTY.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1854.

SQUIRE.

See CHIVALRY.

STAATEN-BUND.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1814-1820.

STADACONA.

See QUEBEC: A. D. 1535.

STADION, OR STADIUM, The.

See HIPPODROME.

STADIUM, OR STADE, The Greek.

"Throughout the present work I shall uniformly assume that the
Greeks employed but one measure under that designation [the
stadium] which was … a hundred fathoms, or 600 Greek feet.
This has been proved, in my opinion, beyond a doubt, by
Colonel Leake in his paper 'On the Stade as a Linear Measure'
… republished in his treatise 'On some disputed Questions of
Ancient Geography.' … At the present day the controversy may
be considered as settled. … A stade of 600 Greek feet was in
reality very nearly the 600th part of a degree [of the
circumference of the earth]; ten stades are consequently just
about equal to a nautical or geographical mile of 60 to a
degree."

_E. H. Bunbury,
History of Ancient Geography,
chapter 6, note c._

STADTHOLDER.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1584-1585.

STADTLOHN, Battle of (1623).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1621-1623.

STAFFARDA, Battle of (1690).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1689-1691.

{3024}

STAHL, George E.: Influence upon Medical Science.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE:
17TH CENTURY. CLOSING PERIOD, &c.

STALLER AND HORDERE, The.

"In the time of Ælfred [Alfred the Great] the great officers
of the court were the four heads of the royal household, the
Hordere, the Staller, the Dish-thegn, and the Cup-thegn. … The
Hordere was the officer of the court in its stationery aspect,
as the Staller or Constable was of the court on progress. … Of
the four officers one only retained under the later West-Saxon
monarchy any real power. The dish-thegn and cup-thegn lost
importance as the court became stationary and no longer
maintained a vast body of royal followers. The staller
retained only the functions of leading in war as the feudal
constable, which in turn passed away with later changes in the
military system. The hordere alone held a position of growing
importance. … No doubt the 'Hoard' contained not only money
and coin, but the costly ornaments and robes of the crown."

_J. R. Green,
Conquest of England,
chapter 10, note._

"The names by which the Chamberlain was designated are Hrægel
thegn, literally thane or servant of the wardrobe,
Cubicularius, Camerarius, Búrthegn, perhaps sometimes
Dispensator, and Thesaurarius or Hordere. … We may presume
that he had the general management of the royal property, as
well as the immediate regulation of the household. … The
Marshal (among the Franks Marescalcus and Comes stabuli) was
properly speaking the Master of the Horse. … The Anglosaxon
titles are Steallere [Staller] and Horsthegn, Stabulator and
Strator regis."

_J. M. Kemble,
The Saxons in England,
book 2, chapter 3._

See, also, CONSTABLE.

STALWARTS AND HALF-BREEDS.

During the administration of President Grant, certain lenders
of the Republican party in the United States—conspicuous among
them Senator Conkling of New York—acquired a control of the
distribution of appointed offices under the Federal Government
which gave them a more despotic control of the organization of
their party than had been known before in the history of the
country. It was the culminating development of the "spoils
system" in American politics. It produced a state of things in
which the organization of the party—its elaborated structure
of committees and conventions—state, county, city, town and
district,—became what was accurately described as a "political
machine." The managers and workers of the machine were brought
under a discipline which allowed no room for personal opinions
of any kind; the passive adherents of the party were expected
to accept what was offered to them, whether in the way of
candidates or declarations of principle. The faction which
controlled and supported this powerful machine in politics
acquired the name of Stalwarts and contemptuously gave the
name of Half-breeds to their dissatisfied Republican
opponents. During the term of President Hayes, who favored
Civil Service Reform, the Stalwarts were considerably checked.
They had desired to nominate General Grant in 1876 for a third
term, but found it unwise to press the proposition. In 1880,
however, they rallied all their strength to accomplish the
nomination of Grant at Chicago and were bitterly enraged when
their opponents in the convention carried the nomination of
Garfield. They joined in electing him, but Conkling, the
Stalwart leader, speedily quarreled with the new President
when denied the control of the Federal "patronage" (that is,
official appointments) in New York State, resigned from the
Senate, appealed to the New York Legislature for re-election,
and was beaten. Then followed the tragedy of the assassination
of President Garfield, which had a very sobering effect on the
angry politics of the time. Conkling disappeared from public
life, and Stalwartism subsided with him.

_J. C. Ridpath,
Life and Work of James A. Garfield,
chapters 10-12._

ALSO IN:
_E. Stanwood,
History of Presidential Elections,
chapters 24-25._

_J. Bryce,
The American Commonwealth,
chapters 60-65 (volume 2)._

STAMBOUL.

"It must be remembered that the Constantinople of 1200 was
only that portion which is now called Stamboul or Istamboul, a
word which is probably the Turkish abbreviation of
Constantinople, just as Skenderoun is the abbreviation of
Alexandretta, Skender bey for Alexander bey, Isnik for Nicæa,
Ismidt for Nicomedia, &c. … The 'Itinerario' of Clavigo states
that before the Moslem occupation the inhabitants themselves
called the city Escomboli. The Turks allow a few foreigners to
have their warehouses in Stamboul, but will not permit them to
reside there. All the embassies and legations are in Pera,
that is, across the water; … or at Galata, which is a part of
what was originally called Pera."

_E. Pears,
The Fall of Constantinople,
chapter 7, foot-note._

STAMFORD, Battle of.

See LOSE-COAT FIELD.

STAMFORD BRIDGE, Battle of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1066 (SEPTEMBER).

STAMP ACT, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1765; and 1766.

STANDARD, The Battle of the (1138).

In the civil war which arose in England, on the death of Henry
I., over the disputed succession to the throne, Matilda's
claims, as the daughter of Henry, were supported against
Stephen of Blois by her mother's brother David, king of
Scotland. David, as the nephew of Edgar Ætheling, heir of the
dethroned Saxon royal house, had some claims of his own to the
English crown; but these he declared that he waived in favor
of his niece. "Though he himself declared that he had no
desire for the English throne, there is mentioned by one
chronicler a general conspiracy of the native English with
their exiled country-men, of whom the south of Scotland was
full, for the purpose of taking advantage of the condition of
the country to put to death the Normans, and to place the
crown upon David's head. The plot was discovered, … and many
of the conspirators were hanged, but many others found a
refuge in Scotland. At length, in 1118, David entered England
with a large army, and pushed forward as far as Northallerton
in Yorkshire. He was there met by the forces of the Northern
bishops and barons. … They gathered round a tall mast borne
upon a carriage, on which, above the standards of the three
Northern Saints, St. Peter of York, St. John of Beverley, and
St. Wilfred of Ripon, was displayed a silver pyx bearing the
consecrated wafer.
{3025}
The motley army of the Scots, some armed as the English, some
in the wild dress of the Picts of Galloway, after a
well-fought battle [August 22, 1138] broke against the
full-clad Norman soldiers, and were killed by the arrows,
which had now become the national weapon of the English;
11,000 are said to have fallen on the field.' From the great
standard above described, which probably resembled the
"Carroccio" of the mediæval Italian cities, the fight at
Northallerton was called the Battle of the Standard.

_J. F. Bright,
History of England,
period 1, page 79._

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1135-1154.

STÄNDERATH, The.

See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1848-1890.

STANDING ARMY: The first in modern Europe.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1453-1461.

STANDISH, Miles, and the Plymouth Colony.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1623-1629.

STANISLAUS AUGUSTUS PONIATOWSKI,
King of Poland, A. D. 1764-1795.

STANISLAUS LESZCZYNSKI,
King of Poland, A. D. 1704-1709.

STANWIX, Fort.

The early name of the fort afterwards called Fort Schuyler,
near the head of the Mohawk River, in New York.

STANWIX, Fort: A. D. 1768.
Boundary Treaty with the Six Nations.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1765-1768.

STANZ, Battle of (1798).

See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1792-1798.

STANZ, Convention of.

See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1481-1501.

STAOUELI, Battles of.

See BARBARY STATES: A. D. 1830.

STAPLE. STAPLERS, The.