Chapter 3: , page 89 (50)

"The Union between Upper and Lower Canada lasted until 1867,
when the provinces of British North America were brought more
closely together in a federation and entered on a new era in
their constitutional history. For many years previous to 1865,
the administration of government in Canada had become
surrounded with political difficulties of a very perplexing
character. … Parties at last were so equally balanced on
account of the antagonism between the two sections, that the
vote of one member might decide the fate of an administration,
and the course of legislation for a year or a series of years.
From the 21st of May, 1862, to the end of June, 1864, there
were no less than five different ministries in charge of the
public business. Legislation, in fact, was at last practically
at a dead-lock. … It was at this critical juncture of
affairs that the leaders of the government and opposition, in
the session of 1864, came to a mutual understanding, after the
most mature consideration of the whole question. A coalition
government was formed on the basis of a federal union of all
the British American provinces, or of the two Canadas, in case
of the failure of the larger scheme. … It was a happy
coincidence that the legislatures of the lower provinces were
about considering a maritime union at the time the leading
statesmen of Canada had combined to mature a plan of settling
their political difficulties. The Canadian ministry at once
availed themselves of this fact to meet the maritime delegates
at their convention in Charlottetown, and the result was the
decision to consider the question of the larger union at
Quebec. Accordingly, on the 10th of October, 1864, delegates
from all the British North American provinces assembled in
conference, in 'the ancient capital,' and after very ample
deliberations during eighteen days, agreed to 72 resolutions,
which form the basis of the Act of Union. These resolutions
were formally submitted to the legislature of Canada in
January, 1865, and after an elaborate debate, which extended
from the 3d of February to the 14th of March, both houses
agreed by very large majorities to an address to her Majesty
praying her to submit a measure to the Imperial Parliament for
the purpose of uniting the provinces in accordance with the
provisions of the Quebec resolutions.' Some time, however, had
to elapse before the Union could be consummated, in
consequence of the strong opposition that very soon exhibited
itself in the maritime provinces, more especially to the
financial terms of the scheme." Certain modifications of the
terms of the Quebec resolutions were accordingly made, and
"the provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick,
being at last in full accord, through the action of their
respective legislatures, the plan of union was submitted on
the 12th of February, 1867, to the Imperial Parliament, where
it met with the warm support of the statesmen of all parties,
and passed without amendment in the course of a few weeks, the
royal assent being given on the 29th of March. The new
constitution came into force on the First of July, [annually
celebrated since, as 'Dominion Day '] 1867, and the first
parliament of the united provinces met on November of the same
year. … The confederation, as inaugurated in 1867, consisted
only of the four provinces of Ontario [Upper Canada], Quebec
[Lower Canada], Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. By the 146th
section of the Act of Union, provision was made for the
admission of other colonies on addresses from the parliament
of Canada, and from the respective legislatures of
Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, and British Columbia.
Rupert's Land and the North-west Territory might also at any
time be admitted into the Union on the address of the Canadian
Parliament. … The title of Dominion did not appear in the
Quebec resolutions. The 71st Res. is to the effect that 'Her
Majesty be solicited to determine the rank and name of the
federated Provinces.' The name ['The Dominion of Canada'] was
arranged at the conference held in London in 1866, when the
union bill was finally drafted."

_T. G. Bourinot,
Manual of Constitutional History of Canada,
chapter 6-7 (with foot-note)._

"The Federal Constitution of the Dominion of Canada is
contained in the British North America Act, 1867, a statute of
the British Parliament (30 Vict., c. 3). I note a few of the
many points in which it deserves to be compared with that of
the United States. The Federal or Dominion Government is
conducted on the so-called 'Cabinet system' of England, i. e.,
the Ministry sit in Parliament, and hold office at the
pleasure of the House of Commons. The Governor-General
[appointed by the Crown] is in the position of an
irresponsible and permanent executive similar to that of the
Crown of Great Britain, acting on the advice of responsible
ministers.
{385}
He can dissolve Parliament. The Upper House or Senate, is
composed of 78 persons, nominated for life by the
Governor-General, i. e., the Ministry. The House of Commons
has at present 210 members, who are elected for five years.
Both senators and members receive salaries. The Senate has
very little power or influence. The Governor-General has a
veto but rarely exercises it, and may reserve a bill for the
Queen's pleasure. The judges, not only of the Federal or
Dominion Courts, but also of the provinces, are appointed by
the Crown, i. e., by the Dominion Ministry, and hold for good
behaviour. Each of the Provinces, at present [1888] seven in
number, has a legislature of its own, which, however, consists
in Ontario, British Columbia, and Manitoba, of one House only,
and a Lieutenant-Governor, with a right of veto on the acts of
the legislature, which he seldom exercises. Members of the
Dominion Parliament cannot sit in a Provincial legislature.
The Governor-General has a right of disallowing acts of a
Provincial legislature, and sometimes exerts it, especially
when a legislature is deemed to have exceeded its
constitutional competence. In each of the Provinces there is a
responsible Ministry, working on the Cabinet system of
England. The distribution of matters within the competence of
the Dominion Parliament and of the Provincial legislatures
respectively, bears a general resemblance to that existing in
the United States; but there is this remarkable distinction,
that whereas in the United States, Congress has only the
powers actually granted to it, the State legislatures
retaining all such powers as have not been taken from them,
the Dominion Parliament has a general power of legislation,
restricted only by the grant of certain specific and exclusive
powers to the Provincial legislatures. Criminal law is
reserved for the Dominion Parliament; and no Province has the
right to maintain a military force. Questions as to the
constitutionality of a statute, whether of the Dominion
Parliament or of a Provincial legislature, come before the
courts in the ordinary way, and if appealed, before the
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in England. The
Constitution of the Dominion was never submitted to a popular
vote, and can be altered only by the British Parliament,
except as regards certain points left to its own legislature.
… There exists no power of amending the Provincial
constitutions by popular vote similar to that which the
peoples of the several States exercise in the United States."

_J. Bryce,
The American Commonwealth,
volume 1, appendix., note (B) to chapter 80._

See CONSTITUTION OF CANADA.

ALSO IN:
_J. E. C. Munro,
The Constitution of Canada
(with text of Act in appendix)
Parl. Debate on Confederation, 3d Sess., 8th Prov.
Parliament of Canada._

_W. Houston,
Docs. Illustrative of the Canadian Constitution,
pages 186-224._

CANADA: A. D. 1869-1873.
Acquisition of the Hudson's Bay Territory.
Admission or Manitoba, British Columbia and Prince Edward's
Island to the Dominion.

"In 1869 … the Dominion was enlarged by the acquisition of
the famous Hudson's Bay Territory. When the charter of the
Hudson's Bay Company expired in 1869, Lord Granville, then
Colonial Secretary, proposed that the chief part of the
Company's territories should be transferred to the Dominion
for £300,000; and the proposition was agreed to on both sides.
The Hudson's Bay Charter dated from the reign of Charles II.
The region to which it referred carries some of its history
imprinted in its names. Prince Rupert was at the head of the
association incorporated by the Charter into the Hudson's Bay
Company. The name of Rupert's Land perpetuates his memory. …
The Hudson's Bay Company obtained from King Charles, by virtue
of the Charter in 1670, the sole and absolute government of
the vast watershed of Hudson's Bay, the Rupert's Land of the
Charter, on condition of paying yearly to the King and his
successors 'two elks and two black beavers,' 'whensoever and
all often as we, our heirs and successors, shall happen to
enter into the said countries, territories and regions.' The
Hudson's Bay Company was opposed by the North West Fur Company
in 1788, which fought them for a long time with Indians and
law, with the tomahawk of the red man and the legal judgment
of a Romilly or a Keating. In 1812 Lord Selkirk founded the
Red River Company. This interloper on the battle field was
harassed by the North West Company, and it was not until 1821,
when the Hudson's Bay and North West Companies—impoverished
by their long warfare-amalgamated their interests, that the
Red River settlers were able to reap their harvests in peace,
disturbed only by occasional plagues of locusts and
blackbirds. In 1885, on Lord Selkirk's death, the Hudson's Bay
Company bought the settlement from his executors. It had been
under their sway before that, having been committed to their
care by Lord Selkirk during his lifetime. The privilege of
exclusive trading east of the Rocky Mountains was conferred by
Royal license for twenty-one years in May 1888, and some ten
years later the Company received a grant of Vancouver's Island
for the term of ten years from 1849 to 1859. The Hudson's Bay
Company were always careful to foster the idea that their
territory was chiefly wilderness, and discountenanced the
reports of its fertility and fitness for colonisation which
were from time to time brought to the ears of the English
Government. In 1857, at the instance of Mr. Labouchere, a
Select Committee of the House of Commons was appointed to
enquire into the state of the British possessions under the
Company's administration. Various Government expeditions, and
the publication of many Blue Books, enlightened the public
mind as to the real nature of those tracts of land which the
council from the Fenchurch Street house declared to be so
desolate. … During the sittings of the Committee there was
cited in evidence a petition from 575 Red River settlers to
the Legislative Assembly of Canada demanding British
protection. This appeal was a proceeding curiously at variance
with the later action of the settlement. When in 1869 the chief
part of the territories was transferred to Canada, on the
proposition of Earl Granville, the Red River country rose in
rebellion, and refused to receive the new Governor. Louis
Riel, the insurgent chief, seized on Fort Garry and the
Company's treasury, and proclaimed the independence of the
settlement. Sir Garnet, then Colonel, Wolseley, was sent in
command of an expedition which reached Fort Garry on August
28, when the insurgents submitted without resistance, and the
district received the name of Manitoba."

_J. McCarthy,
History of our own Times,
chapter 55 (volume 4)._

{386}

Manitoba and the Northwest Territories were admitted to the
Dominion Confederation May 12, 1870; British Columbia, July
20, 1871; Prince Edward Island, July 1, 1873.

_J. McCoun,
Manitoba and the Great North West._

ALSO IN:
_G. M. Adam,
The Canadian Northwest,
chapters 1-13_

_G. L. Huyshe,
The Red River Expedition._

_W. P. Greswell,
History of the Dominion of Canada,
page 313._

_J. E. C. Munro,
The Constitution of Canada,
chapter 2._

_G. E. Ellis,
The Hudson Bay Company
(Narrative and Critical History of America, volume 8)._

See, also, BRITISH COLUMBIA: A. D. 1858-1871,
and NORTHWEST TERRITORIES of CANADA.

CANADA: A. D. 1871.
The Treaty of Washington.

See ALABAMA CLAIMS: A. D. 1871.

CANADA: A. D. 1877.
The Halifax Fishery Award.

See FISHERIES, NORTH AMERICAN: A. D. 1877-1888.

CANADA: A. D. 1885-1888.
Termination of the Fishery articles of the Treaty of Washington.
Renewed controversies.
The rejected Treaty.

See FISHERIES, NORTH AMERICAN: A. D. 1877-1888.

CANAI, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

CANARES, The.

See ECUADOR: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

CANARY ISLANDS, Discovery of the.

The first great step in African exploration "was the discovery
of the Canary Islands. These were the 'Elysian fields' and
'Fortunate islands' of antiquity. Perhaps there is no country
in the world that has been so many times discovered,
conquered, and invaded, or so much fabled about, as these
islands. There is scarcely a nation upon earth of any maritime
repute that has not had to do with them. Phœnicians,
Carthaginians, Romans, Moors, Genoese, Normans, Portuguese,
and Spaniards of every province (Aragonese, Castilians,
Gallicians, Biscayans, Andalucians) have all made their
appearance in these islands. The Carthaginians are said to
have discovered them, and to have reserved them as an asylum
in case of extreme danger to the state. Sertorius, the Roman
general who partook the fallen fortunes of Marius is said to
have meditated retreat to these 'islands of the blessed,' and
by some writers is supposed to have gone there. Juba, the
Mauritanian prince, son of the Jupa celebrated by Sallust,
sent ships to examine them, and has left a description of
them. Then came the death of empires, and darkness fell upon
the human race, at least upon the records of their history.
When the world revived, and especially when the use of the
loadstone began to be known among mariners, the Canary Islands
were again discovered. Petrarch is referred to by Viera to
prove that the Genoese sent out an expedition to these
islands. Las Casas mentions that an English or French vessel
bound from France or England to Spain was driven by contrary
winds to the Canary Islands, and on its return spread abroad
in France an account of the voyage."

_A. Helps,
Spanish Conquest,
book 1, chapter 1._

ALSO IN:
_E. H. Bunbury,
History of Ancient Geography,
chapter 20, note E._

CANAS, The.

See PERU: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

CANCELLARIUS.

See CHANCELLOR.

CANDAHAR.
Siege and relief of English forces (1880).

See AFGHANISTAN: A. D. 1869-1881.

CANDIA.

This is the name of the principal town in the island of Crete,
but has been often applied to Crete itself.

See TURKS: A. D. 1645-1669, where an account is given of
the so-called "War of Candia";
also CRETE: A. D. 823.

CANDRAGUPTA, OR CHANDRAGUPTA,
The empire of.

See INDIA.: B. C. 327-312, and 312-.

CANGI, The.

A tribe in early Britain which occupied the westerly part of
Modern Carnarvonshire.

See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.

CANICHANAS, The.

See BOLIVIA: ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

CANIENGAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.

CANNÆ Battles of (B. C. 216).

See PUNIC WAR: THE SECOND. (B. C. 88).
See ROME: B. C. 90-88.

CANNENEFATES, The.

"On the other bank of the Rhine [on the right bank] next to
the Batavi, in the modern Kennemer district (north Holland,
beyond Amsterdam) dwelt the Cannenefates, closely related to
them but less numerous; they are not merely named among the
tribes subjugated by Tiberius, but were also treated like the
Batavi in the furnishing of soldiers."

_T. Mommsen,
History of Rome,
book 8, chapter 4._

CANNING, Lord, The Indian administration of, A. D. 1856-1862.

CANNING MINISTRY, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1820-1827.

CANOPUS, Decree of.

An important inscribed stone found in 1865 at San, or Tanis,
in Egypt, which is a monument of the reign of Ptolemy
Euergetes, who ascended the throne in 246 B. C. It gives "in
hieroglyphics and Greek (the demotic version is on the edge) a
decree of the priests assembled at Canopus for their yearly
salutation of the king. When they were so assembled, in his
ninth year, his infant daughter Berenice, fell sick and died,
and there was great lamentation over her. The decree first
recounts the generous conduct and prowess of the king, who had
conquered all his enemies abroad, and had brought back from
Persia all the statues of the gods carried off in old time
from Egypt by foreign kings. He had also, in a great
threatening of famine, when the Nile had failed to rise to its
full amount, imported vast quantities of corn from Cyprus,
Phœnicia, &c., and fed his people. Consequently divine honours
are to be paid to him and his queen as 'Benefactor-Gods' in
all the temples of Egypt, and feasts are to be held in their
honour. … This great inscription, far more perfect and
considerably older than the Rosetta Stone, can now be cited as
the clearest proof of Champollion's reading of the
hieroglyphics."

_J. P. Mahaffy,
Story of Alexander's Empire,
chapter 15, note._

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CANOSSA, Henry IV. at.

In the conflict which arose between the German Emperor, Henry
IV. (then crowned only as King of the Romans) and Pope Gregory
VII. (the inflexible Hildebrand), the former was placed at a
great disadvantage by revolts and discontents in his own
Germanic dominions. When, therefore, on the 22d of February,
A. D. 1076, the audacious pontiff pronounced against the king
his tremendous sentence, not only of excommunication, but of
deposition, releasing all Christians from allegiance to him,
he addressed a large party, both in Germany and Italy, who
were more than willing to accept an excuse for depriving Henry
of his crown. This party controlled a diet held at Tribur, in
October, which declared that his forfeiture of the throne
would be made irrevocable if he did not procure from the pope
a release from his excommunication before the coming
anniversary of its pronunciation, in February. A diet to be
held then at Augsburg, under the presidency of the pope, would
determine the affairs of the Empire. With characteristic
energy, Henry resolved to make his way to the pope, in person,
and to become reconciled with him, before the Augsburg
meeting. Accompanied by the queen, her child, and a few
attendants, he crossed the Alps, with great hardship and
danger, in the midst of an uncommonly cold and snowy winter.
Meantime, the pope had started upon his journey to Augsburg.
Hearing on the way of Henry's movement to meet him, not
desiring the encounter, and distrusting, moreover, the
intentions of his enemy, he took refuge in the strong fortress
of Canossa, high up in the rocky recesses of the Apennines. To
that mountain retreat the desperate king pressed his way. "It
was January 21, 1077, when Henry arrived at Canossa; the cold
was severe and the snow lay deep. He was lodged at the foot of
the castle-steep, and had an interview with the countess
Matilda [mistress of the castle, and devoted friend of the
pope], Hugh, abbot of Clugny, and others, in the Chapel of St.
Nicolas, of which no traces now remain. Three days were spent
in debating terms of reconciliation; Matilda and Hugh
interceded with the pope on the king's behalf, but Gregory was
inexorable; unless Henry surrendered the crown into the pope's
hands the ban should not be taken off. Henry could not stoop
so low as this, but he made up his mind to play the part of a
penitent suppliant. Early on the morning of January 25 he
mounted the winding, rocky path, until he reached the
uppermost of the three walls, the one which enclosed the
castle yard. And here, before the gateway which still exists,
and perpetuates in its name, 'Porta di penitenza,' the memory
of this strange event, the king, barefoot, and clad in a
coarse woolen shirt, stood knocking for admittance. But he
knocked in vain: from morning till evening the heir of the
Roman Empire stood shivering outside the fast-closed door. Two
more days he climbed the rugged path and stood weeping and
imploring to be admitted." At last, the iron-willed pontiff
consented to a parley, and an agreement was brought about by
which Henry was released from excommunication, but the
question of his crown was left for future settlement. In the
end he gained nothing by his extraordinary abasement of
himself. Many of his supporters were alienated by it; a rival
king was elected. Gathering all his energies, Henry then stood
his ground and made a fight in which even Gregory fled before
him; but it was all to no avail. The triumph remained with the
priests.

_W. R. W. Stephens,
Hildebrand and His Times,
chapters 11-15._

ALSO IN:
_A. F. Villemain,
Life of Gregory VII.,
book 5._

See, also,
PAPACY: A. D. 1056-1122;
ROME: 1081-1084.

CANTABRIA, Becomes Bardulia and Castile.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1026-1230.

CANTABRIANS AND ASTURIANS, The.

The Cantabrians were an ancient people in the north of Spain,
inhabiting a region to the west of the Asturians. They were
not conquered by the Romans until the reign of Augustus, who
led an expedition against them in person, B. C. 27, but was
forced by illness to commit the campaign to his lieutenants.
The Cantabrians submitted soon after being defeated in a great
battle at Vellica, near the sources of the Ebro; but in 22 B.
C. they joined the Asturians in a desperate revolt, which was
not subdued until three years later.

_C. Merivale,
History of the Romans,
chapter 34._

ALSO IN:
_T. Mommsen,
History of Rome,
book 8, chapter 2._

See APPENDIX A, volume 1.

CANTÆ, The.

A tribe in ancient Caledonia.

See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.

CANTERBURY. The murder of Becket (1170).

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1162-1170.

CANTERBURY PRIMACY, Origin of the.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 597-685.

CANTII, The.

The tribe of ancient Britons which occupied the region of Kent.

See BRITAIN. CELTIC TRIBES.

CANTON: A. D. 1839-1842.
The Opium War.
Ransom of the city from English assault.
Its port opened to British trade.

See CHINA: A. D. 1839-1842.

CANTON: A. D. 1856-1857.
Bombardment by the English.
Capture by the English and French.

See CHINA: A. D. 1856-1860.

CANTONS, Latin.

See GENS, ROMAN;
also ALBA.

CANTONS, Swiss.

See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1848-1890.

CANULEIAN LAW, The.

See ROME: B. C. 445.

CANUTE, OR CNUT,
King of England, A. D.1017-1035,
and King of Denmark, A. D. 1018-1035.
Canute II., King of Denmark, A. D. 1080-1086.
Canute III., King of Denmark, A. D. 1147-1156.
Canute IV., King of Denmark, A. D. 1182-1202.

CANZACA.

See ECBATANA.

CANZACA, OR SHIZ, Battle of.

A battle fought A. D. 591, by the Romans, under Narses,
supporting the cause of Chosroës II. king of Persia, against a
usurper Bahram, who had driven him from his throne. Bahram was
defeated and Chosroës restored.

_G. Rawlinson,
Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy,
chapter 23._

CAP OF LIBERTY, The.

See LIBERTY CAP.

CAPE BRETON ISLAND: A. D. 1497.
Discovery by John Cabot.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1497.

CAPE BRETON ISLAND: A. D. 1504.
Named by the fishermen from Brittany.

See NEWFOUNDLAND: A. D. 1501-1578.

CAPE BRETON ISLAND: A. D. 1713.
Possession confirmed to France.

See NEWFOUNDLAND: A. D. 1713.

{388}

CAPE BRETON ISLAND: A. D. 1720-1745.
The fortification of Louisbourg.

After the surrender of Placentia or Plaisance, in
Newfoundland, to England, under the treaty of Utrecht (see
NEWFOUNDLAND: A. D. 1713), the French government determined to
fortify strongly some suitable harbor on the island of Cape
Breton for a naval station, and especially for the protection
of the fisheries of France on the neighboring coasts. The
harbor known previously as Havre a l' Anglois was chosen for
the purpose. "When the French government decided in favour of
Havre a l' Anglois its name was changed to Louisbourg, in
honour of the king; and, to mark the value set upon Cape
Breton it was called Isle Royale, which it retained until its
final conquest in 1758, when its ancient name was resumed." In
1720 the fortifications were commenced, and the work of their
construction was prosecuted with energy and with unstinted
liberality for more than twenty years. "Even the English
colonies contributed a great proportion of the materials used
in their construction. When Messrs. Newton and Bradstreet, who
were sent to confer with M. de St. Ovide [to remonstrate
against the supplying of arms to the Indians in Nova Scotia]
… returned to Annapolis, they reported that during their
short stay at Louisbourg, in 1725, fourteen colonial vessels,
belonging chiefly to New England, arrived there with cargoes
of boards, timber and bricks. … Louisbourg [described, with
a plan, in the work here quoted] … had, between the years
1720 and 1745, cost the French nation the enormous sum of
30,000,000 livres, or £1,200,000 sterling; nevertheless, as
Dussieux informs us, the fortifications were still unfinished,
and likely to remain so, because the cost had far exceeded the
estimates; and it was found such a large garrison would be
required for their defence that the government had abandoned
the idea of completing them according to the original design."

_R. Brown,
History of the Island of Cape Breton,
letters 9-11._

"The fort was built of stone, with walls more than 30 feet
high, and a ditch 80 feet wide, over which was a communication
with the town by a drawbridge. It had six bastions and three
batteries, with platforms for 148 cannon and six mortars. On
an islet, which was flanked on one side by a shoal, a battery
of 30 guns, 28 pounders, defended the entrance of the harbor,
which was about 400 yards wide, and was also commanded from
within by the Grand or Royal Battery, mounting as many guns,
of the calibre of 42 pounds. The fort … was a safe
rendezvous and refuge for French fleets and privateers,
sailing in the Western Hemisphere. It commanded the maritime
way into Canada, and it watched the English settlements all
along the coast. It was a standing threat to the great
business of New England seamen, which was the fishery on the
banks."

_J. G. Palfrey,
History of New England,
book 5, chapter 9 (volume 5)._

"'So great was its strength that it was called the Dunkirk of
America. It had nunneries and palaces, terraces and gardens.
That such a city rose upon a low and desolate island in the
infancy of American colonization appears incredible;
explanation is alone found in the fishing enthusiasm of the
period.'"

_C. B. Elliott,
The United States and the New England Fisheries,
page 18._

CAPE BRETON ISLAND: A. D. 1744.
Outbreak of the Third Inter-Colonial War.

See NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1744.

CAPE BRETON ISLAND: A. D. 1745.
Conquest by the New Englanders.
Fall of Louisbourg.

See NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1745;
and ENGLAND: A. D. 1745-1747.

CAPE BRETON ISLAND: A. D. 1748.
Restored to France.

See AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, THE CONGRESS;
and NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1745-1748.

CAPE BRETON ISLAND: A. D. 1758-1760.
The final capture and destruction of Louisbourg, by the English.

"In May, 1758 [during the Seven Years War,—see CANADA: A. D.
1750-1753 and after], a powerful fleet, under command of
Admiral Boscawen, arrived at Halifax for the purpose of
recapturing a place [Louisbourg] which ought never to have
been given up. The fleet consisted of 23 ships of the line and
18 frigates, besides transports, and when it left Halifax it
numbered 157 vessels. With it was a land force, under Jeffery
Amherst, of upward of 12,000 men. The French forces at
Louisbourg were much inferior, and consisted of only 8 ships
of the line and 3 frigates, and of about 4,000 soldiers. The
English fleet set sail from Halifax on the 28th of May, and on
the 8th of June a landing was effected in Gabarus Bay. The
next day the attack began, and after a sharp conflict the
French abandoned and destroyed two important batteries. The
siege was then pushed by regular approaches; but it was not
until the 26th of July that the garrison capitulated. By the
terms of surrender the whole garrison were to become prisoners
of war and to be sent to England, and the English acquired 218
cannon and 18 mortars, beside great quantities of ammunition
and military stores. All the vessels of war had been captured
or destroyed; but their crews, to the number of upward of
2,600 men, were included in the capitulation. Two years later,
at the beginning of 1760, orders were sent from England to
demolish the fortress, render the harbor impracticable, and
transport the garrison and stores to Halifax. These orders
were carried out so effectually that few traces of its
fortifications remain, and the place is inhabited only by
fishermen."

_C. C. Smith,
The Wars on the Seaboard
(Narrative and Critical History of America,
volume 5, chapter 7)._

ALSO IN:
_F. Parkman,
Montcalm and Wolfe,
chapter 19 (volume 2)._

See, also, CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1758.

CAPE BRETON ISLAND: A. D. 1763.
Ceded to England by the Treaty of Paris.

See SEVEN YEARS WAR.

CAPE BRETON ISLAND: A. D. 1763.
Added to the government of Nova Scotia.

See CANADA: A. D. 1763-1774.

----------CAPE BRETON ISLAND: End----------

CAPE COLONY.

See SOUTH AFRICA.

CAPE ST. VINCENT, Naval battle of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1797.

CAPETIANS,
Origin and crowning of the.

See FRANCE: A. D. 861, and 877-987.

CAPHARSALAMA, Battle of.
One of the victories of the Jewish patriot, Judas Maccabæus
over the Syrian general Nicanor, B. C. 162.

_Josephus,
Antiquity of the Jews,
book 12, chapter 10._

CAPHTOR.

An ancient Phœnician settlement on the coast of the Nile
Delta. "From an early period the whole of this district had
been colonised by the Phœnicians, and as Phœnicia itself was
called Keft by the Egyptians, the part of Egypt in which they
had settled went by the name of Keft-ur, or 'Greater
Phœnicia.'"

_A. H. Sayce,
Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments,
chapter 2._

On the other hand, Ewald and other writers say that "the
Philistines came from Caphtor," and that "this now obsolete
name probably designated either the whole or a part of Crete."

CAPHYÆ, Battle of.

Fought B. C. 220 in the Social War of the Achæan and Ætolian
Leagues. The forces of the former were totally routed.

_C. Thirlwall,
History of Greece,
chapter 63._

{389}

CAPITOLINE HILL AT ROME.
The Capitol.

"In prehistoric times this hill was called the Mons Saturnius,
see Varro, Lin. Lat., volume 41; its name being connected with
that legendary 'golden age' when Saturn himself reigned in
Italy. … This hill, which, like the other hills of Rome, has
had its contour much altered by cutting away and levelling,
consists of a mass of tufa rock harder in structure than that
of the Palatine hill. It appears once to have been surrounded
by cliffs, very steep at most places, and had only approaches
on one side—that towards the Forum. … The top of the hill
is shaped into two peaks of about equal height, one of which
was known as the Capitolium, and the other as the Arx, or
Citadel. … The Capitolium was also in early time known as
the 'Mars Tarpeius,' so called from the familiar legend of the
treachery of Tarpeia. … In later times the name 'rupes
Tarpeia' was applied, not to the whole peak, but to a part of
its cliff which faced towards the 'Vicus Jugarius' and the
'Forum Magnum.' The identification of that part of the
Tarpeian rock, which was used for the execution of criminals,
according to a very primitive custom, is now almost
impossible. At one place the cliff of the Capitolium is quite
perpendicular, and has been cut very carefully into an upright
even surface; a deep groove, about a foot wide, runs up the
face of this cutting, and there are many rock-cut chambers
excavated in this part of the cliff, some openings into which
appear in the face of the rock. This is popularly though
erroneously known as the Tarpeian rock. … The perpendicular
cliff was once very much higher than it is at present, as
there is a great accumulation of rubbish at its foot. … That
this cliff cannot be the Tarpeian rock where criminals were
executed is shown by Dionysius (viii. 78, and vii. 35), who
expressly says that this took place in the sight of people in
the Forum Magnum, so that the popular Rupes Tarpeia is on the
wrong side of the hill."

_J. H. Middleton,
Ancient Rome in 1885,
chapter 7._

See, also, SEVEN HILLS OF ROME, and GENS, ROMAN.

CAPITULARIES.

"It is commonly supposed that the term capitularies applies
only to the laws of Charlemagne; this is a mistake. The word
'capitula,' 'little chapters,' equally applies to all the laws
of the Frank kings. … Charlemagne, in his capitularies, did
anything but legislate. Capitularies are, properly speaking,
the whole acts of his government, public acts of all kinds by
which he manifested his authority."

_F. Guizot,
History of Civilization,
lecture 21._

ALSO IN:
_E. F. Henderson,
Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages,
book 2._

CAPITULATION OF CHARLES V.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1520-1521.

CAPO D'ISTRIA, Count, The Assassination of.

See GREECE: A. D. 1830-1862.

CAPPADOCIA.

See MITHRIDATIC WARS.

CAPS, Party of the.

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1720-1792.

CAPTAL.
A title, derived from "capitalis," originally equivalent to
count, and anciently borne by several lords in Aquitaine.
"Towards the 14th century there were no more than two captals
acknowledged, that of Buch and that of Franc."

_Froissart (Johnes),
Chronicles,
book 1, chapter 158, note._

CAPTIVITY, Prince of the.

See JEWS: A. D. 200-400.

CAPTIVITY OF THE JEWS, The.

See JEWS: B. C. 604-536.

CAPUA.

Capua, originally an Etruscan city, called Vulturnum, was
taken by the Samnites, B. C. 424, and was afterwards a city in
which Etruscan and neighboring Greek influences were mixed in
their effect on a barbarous new population. "Capua became by
its commerce and agriculture the second city in Italy in point
of size—the first in point of wealth and luxury. The deep
demoralization in which, according to the accounts of the
ancients, that city surpassed all others in Italy, is
especially reflected in the mercenary recruiting and in the
gladiatorial sports, both of which pre-eminently flourished in
Capua. Nowhere did recruiting officers find so numerous a
concourse as in this metropolis of demoralized civilization.
… The gladiatorial sports … if they did not originate,
were at any rate carried to perfection in Capua. There, sets
of gladiators made their appearance even during banquets."

_T. Mommsen,
History of Rome,
book 2, chapter 5._

CAPUA: B. C. 343.
Surrender to the Romans.

See ROME: B. C. 343-290.

CAPUA: B. C. 216-211.
Welcome to Hannibal.
Siege and capture by the Romans.
The city repeopled.

See PUNIC WAR, THE SECOND.

CAPUA: A. D. 800-1016.
The Lombard principality.

See ITALY (SOUTHERN): A. D. 800-1016.

CAPUA: A. D. 1501.
Capture, sack and massacre by the French.

See ITALY: A. D. 1501-1504.

----------CAPUA: End----------

CAPUCHINS, The.

"The Capuchins were only a branch of the great Franciscan
order, and their mode of life a modification of its Rule.
Among the Franciscans the severity of their Rule had early
become a subject of discussion, which finally led to a
secession of some of the members, of whom Matteo de' Bassi, of
the convent of Montefalcone was the leading spirit. These were
the rigorists who desired to restore the primitive austerities
of the Order. They began by a change of dress, adding to the
usual monastic habit a 'cappuccio,' or pointed hood, which
Matteo claimed was of the same pattern as that worn by St.
Francis. By the bull 'Religionis zelus' (1528), Matteo
obtained from Pope Clement VII. leave for himself and his
companions to wear this peculiar dress; to allow their beards
to grow; to live in hermitages, according to the rule of St.
Francis, and to devote themselves chiefly to the reclaiming of
great sinners. Paul III. afterwards gave them permission to
settle wheresoever they liked. Consistently with the austerity
of their professions, their churches were unadorned, and their
convents built in the simplest style. They became very
serviceable to the Church, and their fearlessness and
assiduity in waiting upon the sick during the plague, which
ravaged the whole of Italy, made them extremely popular."

_J. Alzog,
Manual of Universal Church History,
volume 3, page 455._

CAPUCHONS, OR CAPUTIATI.

See WHITE HOODS OF FRANCE.

CARABOBO, Battles of (1821-1822).

See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1819-1830.

CARACALLA, Roman Emperor, A. D. 211-217.

CARACCAS: A. D. 1812.
Destruction by earthquake.

See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1810-1819.

CARAFFA, Cardinal (Pope Paul IV.) and the Counter Reformation.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1537-1563, and 1555-1603.

{390}

CARAS, OR CARANS, OR CARANQUIS, The.

See ECUADOR.

CARAUSIUS, Revolt of.

See BRITAIN: A. D. 288-297.

CARAVELS. GALEONS, Etc.

"The term caravel was originally given to ships navigated
wholly by sails as distinguished from the galley propelled by
oars. It has been applied to a great variety of vessels of
different size and construction. The caravels of the New World
discoverers may be generally described as long narrow boats of
from 20 to 100 tons burden, with three or four masts of about
equal height carrying sometimes square and sometimes lateen
sails, the fourth mast set at the heel of the bow-sprit
carrying square sails. They were usually half-decked, and
adorned with the lofty forecastle and loftier poop of the day.
The latter constituted over that part of the vessel a double
or treble deck, which was pierced for cannon. … The galera
was a vessel of low bulwarks, navigated by sails and oars,
usually twenty or thirty oars on either side, four or five
oarsmen to a bench. … The galeaza was the largest class of
galera, or craft propelled wholly or in part by oars. … A
galeota was a small galera, having only 16 or 20 oarsmen on a
side, and two masts. The galeon was a large armed merchant
vessel with high bulwarks, three or four decks, with two or
three masts, square rigged, spreading courses and top-sails,
and sometimes top-gallant sails. … Those which plied between
Acapulco and Manila were from 1,200 to 2,000 tons burden. A
galeoncillo was a small galeon. The carac was a large carrying
vessel, the one intended for Columbus' second voyage being
1,250 toneles or 1,500 tons. A nao, or navio, was a large ship
with high bulwarks and three masts. A nave was a vessel with
deck and sails, the former distinguishing it from the barca,
and the absence of oars from a galera. The bergantin, or brig,
had low bulwarks. … The name brigantine was applied in
America also to an open flat-bottomed boat, which usually
carried one sail and from 8 to 16 men."

_H. H. Bancroft,
History of the Pacific States,
volume 1, page 187, foot-note._

See, also, AMERICA: A. D. 1492.

CARBERRY, Mary Stuart's surrender at.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1561-1568.

CARBONARI, Origin and character of the.

See ITALY (SOUTHERN): A. D. 1808-1809.

CARCHEMISH.

See HITTITES, THE.

CARCHEMISH, Battle of.

Fought, B. C. 604, between the armies of Necho, the Egyptian
Pharaoh, and Nebuchadnezzar, then crown prince of Babylon.
Necho, being defeated, was driven back to Egypt and stripped
of all his Syrian conquests.

_F. Lenormant,
Manual of Ancient History of the East,
book 2, chapter 4._

CARDADEN, Battle of (1808).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1808-1809 (DECEMBER-MARCH).

CARDINAL INFANT, The.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1635-1638.

CARDINALS, College of.

See CURIA, THE ROMAN (PAPAL),
and PAPACY: A. D. 1059.

CARDUCHI, The.

"South of the lake [Lake of Van, in Asia Minor] lay the
Carduchi, whom the later Greeks call the Gordyæans and
Gordyenes; but among the Armenians they were known as
Kordu, among the Syrians as Kardu. These are the ancestors
of the modern Kurds, a nation also of the Aryan stock."

_M. Duncker,
History of Antiquity,
book 2, chapter 12._

See, also, GORDYENE.

Under Saladin and the Ayonbite dynasty the Kurds played an
important part in mediæval history.

See SALADIN, EMPIRE OF.

CARGILLITES, The.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1681-1689.

CARHAM, Battle of.

Fought and won by an army of Scots, under King Malcolm,
invading the then English earldom of Bernicia, A. D. 1018, and
securing the annexation of Lothian to the Scottish kingdom.
The battlefield was near that on which Flodden was afterwards
fought.

_E. A. Freeman,
Norman Conquest,
chapter 6, section 2._

CARIANS, The.

"The Carians may be called the doubles of the Leleges. They
are termed the 'speakers of a barbarous tongue,' and yet, on
the other hand, Apollo is said to have spoken Carian. As a
people of pirates clad in bronze they once upon a time had
their day in the Archipelago, and, like the Normans of the
Middle Ages, swooped down from the sea to desolate the coasts;
but their real home was in Asia Minor, where their settlements
lay between those of Phrygians and Pisidians, and community of
religion united them with the Lydians and Mysians."

_E. Curtius,
History of Greece,
book 1, chapter 2._

The country of the Carians was the mountainous district in the
southwestern angle of Asia Minor, the coast of which is
indented with gulfs and frayed with long-projecting rocky
promontories. The island of Rhodes lies close to it on the
south. The Carians were subjugated by the Lydian King Crœsus,
and afterwards passed under the Persian yoke. The Persians
permitted the establishment of a vassal kingdom, under a
dynasty which fixed its capital at Halicarnassus, and made
that city one of the splendid Asiatic outposts of Greek art
and civilization, though always faithfully Persian in its
politics. It was to the memory of one of the Carian kings at
Halicarnassus, Mausolus, that the famous sepulchral monument,
which gave its name to all similar edifices, and which the
ancients counted among the seven wonders of the world, was
erected by his widow. Halicarnassus offered an obstinate
resistance to Alexander the Great and was destroyed by that
ruthless conqueror after it had succumbed to his siege.
Subsequently rebuilt, it never gained importance again. The
Turkish town of Budrum now occupies the site.

_C. T. Newton,
Travels and Discoveries in the Levant,
volume 2._

See, also, HAMITES and DORIANS AND IONIANS.

CARIAY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.

CARIBBEAN ISLANDS, The.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1493-1496, and WEST INDIES.

CARIBS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: CARIBS.

CARILLON.
The French name of Fort Ticonderoga.

See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1758.

CARINTHIA,
Early mediaeval history.

See SLAVONIC PEOPLES: 6TH-7TH CENTURIES,
and GERMANY: A. D. 843-962.

CARINUS, Roman Emperor. A. D. 283-284.

CARIPUNA, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: GUCK on COCO GROUP.

CARISBROOK CASTLE, The flight of King Charles to.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1647 (AUGUST-DECEMBER).

CARIZMIANS.

See KHUAREZM.

CARL, OR KARL.

See ETHEL. ETHELING.

{391}

CARLINGS.

See FRANKS (CARLOVINGIAN EMPIRE): A. D. 768-814.

CARLISLE, Origin of.

See LUGUVALLIUM.

CARLISTS AND CHRISTINOS.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1833-1846, and 1873-1885.

CARLOMAN,
King of the Franks (East Franks-Germany-in association with
Louis III.), A. D. 876-881;

(Burgundy and Aquitaine), A. D. 879-894.

Carloman, Duke and Prince of the Franks, A. D. 741-747.

CARLOS.

See CHARLES.

CARLOVINGIANS.

See FRANKS (CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE): A. D. 768-814.

CARLOWITZ, Peace of.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1683-1699.

CARLSBAD, Congress of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1814-1820.

CARMAGNOLE.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (FEBRUARY-APRIL).

CARMANIANS, The.

"The Germanians of Herodotus are the Carmanians of the later
Greeks, who also passed with them as a separate nation, though
closely allied to the Persians and Medes. They wandered to and
fro to the east of Persia in the district now called Kirman."

_M. Duncker,
History of Antiquity,
volume 5, book 8, chapter 3._

CARMATHIANS, The.

"In the 277th year of the Hegira [A. D. 890], and in the
neighbourhood of Cufa, an Arabian preacher of the name of
Carmath assumed the lofty and incomprehensible style of the
Guide, the Director, the Demonstration, the Word, the Holy
Ghost, the Camel, the Herald of the Messiah, who had conversed
with him in a human shape, and the representative of Mohammed
the son of Ali, of St. John the Baptist, and of the Angel
Gabriel." Carmath was one of the eastern proselytes of the
sect of the Ishmaileans or Ishmailites—the same from which
sprang the terrible secret order of the Assassins. He founded
another branch of the Ishmaileans, which, taking his name,
were called the Carmathians. The sect made rapid gains among
the Bedouins and were soon a formidable and uncontrollable
body. "After a bloody conflict they prevailed in the province
of Bahrein, along the Persian Gulf. Far and wide the tribes of
the desert were subject to the sceptre, or rather to the
sword, of Abu Said and his son Abu Taher; and these rebellious
imams could muster in the field 107,000 fanatics. … The
cities of Racca and Baalbec, of Cufa and Bassorah, were taken
and pillaged; Bagdad was filled with consternation; and the
caliph trembled behind the veils of his palace. … The rapine
of the Carmathians was sanctified by their aversion to the
worship of Mecca. They robbed a caravan of pilgrims, and
20,000 devout Moslems were abandoned on the burning sands to a
death of hunger and thirst. Another year [A. D. 929] they
suffered the pilgrims to proceed without interruption; but, in
the festival of devotion, Abu Taher stormed the holy city and
trampled on the most venerable relics of the Mahometan faith.
Thirty thousand citizens and strangers were put to the sword;
the sacred precincts were polluted by the burial of 3,000 dead
bodies; the well of Zemzen overflowed with blood; the golden
spout was forced from its place; the veil of the Caaba was
divided among these impious sectaries; and the black stone,
the first monument of the nation, was borne away in triumph to
their capital. After this deed of sacrilege and cruelty they
continued to infest the confines of Irak, Syria and Egypt; but
the vital principle of enthusiasm had withered at the root.
… It is needless to enquire into what factions they were
broken, or by whose swords they were finally extirpated. The
sect of the Carmathians may be considered as the second
visible cause of the decline and fall of the empire of the
caliphs."

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 52,
and note by Dr. Smith.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

See, also, ASSASSINS.

CARMELITE FRIARS.

"About the middle of the [12th] century, one Berthold, a
Calabrian, with a few companions, migrated to Mount Carmel
[Palestine], and in the place where the prophet Elias of old
is said to have hid himself, built a humble cottage with a
chapel, in which he and his associates led a laborious and
solitary life. As others continued to unite themselves with
these residents on Mount Carmel, Albert the patriarch of
Jerusalem, near the commencement of the next century,
prescribed for them a rule of life; which the Pontiffs
afterwards sanctioned by their authority, and also changed in
various respects, and when it was found too rigorous and
burdensome, mitigated considerably. Such was the origin of the
celebrated order of Carmelites, or as it is commonly called
the order of St. Mary of Mount Carmel [and known in England as
the White Friars]; which subsequently passed from Syria into
Europe, and became one of the principal mendicant orders. The
Carmelites themselves reject with disdain this account of
their origin, and most strenuously contend that the holy
prophet Elias of the Old Testament, was the parent and founder
of their society. But they were able to persuade very few, (or
rather none out of their society), that their origin was so
ancient and illustrious."

_J. L. von Mosheim,
Institutes of Ecclesiastical History,
book 3, century 12, part 2, chapter 2, section 21._

ALSO IN:
_G. Waddington,
History of the Church,
chapter 19, section 5._

_J. Alzog,
Manual of Universal Church History,
section 244 (volume 2)._

_E. L. Cutts,
Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages,
chapter 5._

CARMIGNANO, Battle of (1796).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1796-1797 (OCTOBER-APRIL).

CARNABII, OR CORNABII, The.

See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.

CARNAC.

See ABURY.

CARNATES, The.

See TURANIAN RACES.

CARNEIAN FESTIVAL, The.

A Spartan festival, said to have been instituted B. C. 676.
"The Carneian festival fell in the Spartan month Carneius, the
Athenian Metageitnon, corresponding nearly to our August. It
was held in honour of Apollo Carneius, a deity worshipped from
very ancient times in the Peloponnese, especially at Amyclæ.
… It was of a warlike character, like the Athenian
Boedrömia."

_G. Rawlinson,
Note to Herodotus,
book 7._

ALSO IN:
_E. Curtius,
History of Greece,
book 2, chapter 1._

CARNIANS, The.

See RHÆTIANS.

CARNIFEX FERRY, Battle of:

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861
(AUGUST-DECEMBER: WEST VIRGINIA).

CARNONACÆ, The.

See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.

CARNOT, Lazare N. M., and the French Revolution.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JUNE-OCTOBER),
to 1797 (SEPTEMBER), and 1800-1801 (MAY-FEBRUARY).

CARNOT, Sadi, President of the French Republic, 1887-.

{392}

CARNUTES, The.

The Carnutes were a tribe who occupied a region supposed to be
the center of Gaul. The modern city of Chartres stands in the
midst of it. The sacred general meeting place of the Druids
was in the country of the Carnutes.

_G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 3, chapter 22._

See, also, VENETI OF WESTERN GAUL.

CAROLINAS, The.

See NORTH CAROLINA, and SOUTH CAROLINA.

CAROLINE, Queen, Trial of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1820-1827.

CAROLINE, The Burning of the.

See CANADA: A. D. 1887-1838, and 1840-1841.

CAROLINE BOOKS, The.

A work put forth by Charlemagne against image-worship, in
considerable sympathy with the views of the Eastern
Iconoclasts and against the decrees of the Second Council of
Nicaea (A. D. 787), is known as the Caroline Books. It is
supposed to have been chiefly the composition of the king’s
learned friend and counsellor; Alcuin, the Englishman.

_J. I. Mombert,
History of Charles the Great,
book 2, chapter 12._

CAROLINGIA.

On the division of the empire of Charlemagne between his three
grandsons, A. D. 843, the western kingdom, which fell to
Charles, took for a time the name of Carolingia, as part of
Lothar’s middle kingdom took the name of Lotharingia, or
Lorraine. But the name died out, or was slowly superseded by
that of France.

_E. A. Freeman,
Historical Geography of Europe,
chapter 6, section 1._

CAROLINGIANS.

See FRANKS (CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE): A. D. 768-814.

CARPET-BAGGERS.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1866-1871.

CARR DIKE.

A Roman work in Britain, formed for the draining of the
Lincolnshire Fens, and used, also, as a road.

_H. M. Scarth,
Roman Britain,
chapter 16._

CARRACKS, OR CARACS.

"A large species of merchant vessel, principally used in
coasting trade," among the Spaniards of the 15th and 16th
centuries.

_W. Irving,
Life and Voyages of Columbus,
book 6, chapter 1 (volume 1), foot-note._

See, also, CARAVELS.

CARRARA FAMILY, The:
Its rise to sovereignty at Padua and its struggle with the
Visconti of Milan.

See VERONA: A. D. 1260-1838,
and MILAN: A. D. 1277-1447.

CARRHÆ, Battles of (B. C. 53).

See ROME: B. C. 57-52. (A. D. 297).
See PERSIA: A. D. 226-627.

CARRICK’S FORD, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1861 (JUNE—JULY: WEST VIRGINIA).

CARROCCIO, The.

"The militia of every city [in Lombardy, or northern Italy,
eleventh and twelfth centuries] was divided into separate
bodies, according to local partitions, each led by a
Gonfaloniere, or standard-bearer. They fought on foot, and
assembled round the carroccio, a heavy car drawn by oxen, and
covered with the flags and armorial bearings of the city. A
high pole rose in the middle of this car, bearing the colours
and a Christ, which seemed to bless the army, with both arms
extended. A priest said daily mass at an altar placed in the
front of the car. The trumpeters of the community, seated on
the back part, sounded the charge and the retreat. It was
Heribert, archbishop of Milan, contemporary of Conrad the
Salic, who invented this car in imitation of the ark of
alliance, and caused it to be adopted at Milan. All the free
cities of Italy followed the example: this sacred car,
intrusted to the guardianship of the militia, gave them weight
and confidence."

_J. C. L. de Sismondi,
History of the Italian Republics,
chapter 1._

CARTERET, Sir George, The Jersey Grant to.

See NEW JERSEY: A. D. 1664-1667, to 1688-1738.

CARTERET’S MINISTRY.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1742-1745.

CARTHAGE, The founding of.